Energy-Efficient Industrial Systems: Evaluation and Implementation

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Abbreviations and Acronyms
1 Energy Management
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Main Drivers for Energy Management
1.3 Typical Energy Management Program
1.4 Energy Policy
1.5 Energy Management Team
1.6 Energy Manager
1.7 Energy Usage and Baseline Data
1.8 Energy Accounting Centers and EnPIs
1.9 Targets and Action Plans
1.10 Energy Audits
1.10.1 Level 1 Audit
1.10.2 Level 2 Audit
1.10.3 Level 3 Audit
1.11 Training
1.12 Awareness
1.13 Documentation
1.14 Internal Audit
1.15 Management Review
2 Motors and Drives
2.1 Introduction to Motors
2.1.1 AC Induction Motors
2.1.2 DC Motors
2.1.3 Permanent-Magnet Motors
2.1.4 Synchronous Motors
2.2 Speed of Motors
2.3 Slip in Motors
2.4 Motor Efficiency
2.5 Losses in Motors
2.6 High-Efficiency Motors
2.7 Impact of Motor Loading on Efficiency
2.8 Estimating Motor Loading
2.8.1 Input Method
2.8.2 Slip Method
2.9 Economics of Energy-Efficient Motors
2.10 Input Power Supply to Motors
2.10.1 Input Power
2.10.2 Supply Voltage
2.10.3 Power Factor
2.11 Maintenance of Motors
2.11.1 Lubrication
2.11.2 Cleaning
2.11.3 Motor Temperature
2.11.4 Voltage Testing
2.11.5 Insulation Testing
2.11.6 Vibration
2.11.7 Alignment
2.12 Motor Drives
2.12.1 Couplings
2.12.2 Belt Drives
2.12.3 Gear Drives
2.13 Variable-Frequency Drives
2.13.1 Introduction
2.13.2 Components of a VFD
2.13.3 Features of VFDs
2.13.4 Selection and Installation
3 Pumping Systems
3.1 Types of Pumps
3.2 System and Pump Curves
3.3 Pump Power
3.4 Affinity Laws
3.5 Pressure Losses in Pipes and Fittings
3.6 Parallel and Series Pumping
3.7 Pump Sizing
3.8 Constant-Flow versus Variable-Flow Systems
3.9 Effect of Pump Speed and Size on Efficiency
3.10 Avoiding Use of Bypass Systems
3.11 Use of Small Pumps to Augment Larger Pumps
3.12 Designing to Minimize Pressure Losses
3.13 Pump Efficiency
3.14 Overall Efficiency
3.14.1 Constant-Speed Pumps
3.14.2 Variable-Speed Pumps
4 Fan Systems
4.1 Types of Fans
4.2 Fan and System Characteristics
4.3 Fan Selection
4.4 Theoretical Fan Power Consumption
4.5 Affinity Laws
4.6 System Losses
4.7 Fan Discharge and Inlet System Effects
4.8 Filter Losses
4.8.1 Face Velocity
4.9 Coil Losses
4.9.1 Clean Coils
4.9.2 Face Velocity
4.10 Fan Efficiency
4.11 Right Sizing of Fans
4.12 Modulating Airflow Rate
5 Boilers and Steam Systems
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Fundamentals of Steam
5.2.1 Dryness Fraction of Steam
5.2.2 Sensible Heat of Water
5.2.3 Latent Heat of Water
5.2.4 Total Enthalpy of Steam
5.2.5 Steam Tables
5.3 Boilers
5.4 Boiler Efficiency
5.4.1 Combustion Efficiency
5.4.2 Thermal Efficiency
5.4.3 Overall Efficiency
5.5 Energy-Saving Measures for Boiler Systems
5.5.1 Improving Combustion Efficiency
5.5.2 Steam Pressure
5.5.3 Optimizing Operation of Auxiliary Equipment
5.5.4 Standby Losses
5.5.5 Minimizing Conduction and Radiation Losses
5.5.6 Heat Recovery from Flue Gas
5.5.7 Flash Steam Recovery
5.5.8 Automatic Blowdown Control
5.5.9 Heat Recovery from Blowdown
5.5.10 Condensate Recovery
5.5.11 Steam Traps
5.5.12 Steam Leaks
5.5.13 Feedwater Tank
5.5.14 Fouling and Scaling in Boilers
6 Process Cooling Systems
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Once-Through Systems
6.3 Cooling Tower Systems
6.3.1 Energy-Saving Measures for Cooling Tower Systems
6.4 Low-Temperature Cooling Systems
6.4.1 Energy-Saving Measures for Low-Temperature Cooling Systems
6.5 Refrigeration Systems
6.5.1 Energy-Saving Measures for Refrigeration Systems
7 Compressed Air Systems
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Typical System Components
7.3 Free Air Delivery
7.4 Standard Conditions
7.5 Utilization Factor
7.6 Types of Compressors
7.6.1 Reciprocating Compressors
7.6.2 Scroll Compressors
7.6.3 Screw Compressors
7.6.4 Sliding-Vane Compressors
7.6.5 Centrifugal Compressors
7.6.6 Axial-Flow Compressors
7.7 Basic Theory of Compression
7.8 Specific Power
7.9 Efficiency
7.10 Multistage and Intercooling
7.11 Heat Recovery
7.12 Dryers
7.12.1 Refrigerant Dryers
7.12.2 Desiccant Dryers
7.13 Receiver Tanks
7.14 System Pressure and Losses
7.15 Compressed Air Leaks
7.16 Using Blowers for Tank Agitation
7.17 Intake Temperature
7.18 Controls
7.18.1 On/Off Control
7.18.2 Load/Unload Control
7.18.3 Inlet Modulation
7.18.4 VFD Control
8 Heat Recovery Systems
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Modes of Heat Transfer
8.2.1 Conduction
8.2.2 Convection
8.2.3 Radiation
8.2.4 Heat Transfer through Composite Materials
8.2.5 Radial Heat Transfer
8.3 Heat Exchangers
8.3.1 Parallel-Flow Heat Exchangers
8.3.2 Counterflow Heat Exchangers
8.3.3 Cross-Flow Heat Exchangers
8.4 Performance of Heat Exchangers
8.5 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
8.6 Plate-Type Heat Exchangers
8.7 Rotary Heat Exchangers
8.8 Fouling in Heat Exchangers
8.9 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient Values
9 Combined Heat and Power Systems
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Internal Combustion Engine
9.3 Gas Turbine
9.4 Steam Turbine
9.5 Combined Cycle
9.6 Need for CHP Systems
9.7 Types of Cogeneration Systems
9.7.1 Gas Turbine Topping
9.7.2 Microturbine
9.7.3 Steam Turbine Topping
9.7.4 Engine Topping Cycle
9.7.5 Combined Cycle Topping
9.7.6 Steam Turbine Bottoming Cycle
9.8 Applications and Considerations
9.8.1 Potential Applications
9.8.2 Factors Influencing Choice of System
9.8.3 System Design Strategies
9.9 Tri-Generation Systems
10 Financial Analysis
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Simple Payback Period
10.3 Return on Investment
10.4 Cash Flow Analysis
10.5 Time Value of Money
10.6 Net Present Value
10.7 Discounting Rate
10.8 Discounted Payback Period
10.9 Internal Rate of Return
10.10 Sensitivity Analysis
10.10.1 Case A—5% Reduction in Annual Net Cash Flows
10.10.2 Case B—20% Increase in Capital Cost
10.10.3 Case C—Reduction in Equipment Service Life by 1 Year
10.10.4 Case D—Combination of 5% Reduction in Annual Net Cash Flows and 10% Increase in Capital Cost
10.11 Life Cycle Cost
Bibliography
Index