Solar Photovoltaic System Applications (eBook)

Dr Mohanty has over 14 years of experience in the field of solar photovoltaic system design and module testing involving batteries, solar based product design and customization, as well as participating in field performance assessments of solar PV systems, project planning, development and formulation of PV /off-grid electrification projects. She has been actively involved in designing, simulating and developing distributed generation based smart grid/mini-grid /micro-grid system and played a pivotal role in demonstrating a first-of-its kind smart mini-grid in India. She has handled more than 15 projects as technical lead and has co-authored a book titled Renewable Energy Engineering and Technology: A Knowledge Compendium where she has written a chapter on solar photovoltaic. She has contributed more than 15 papers, which were published in reputed national and international journals as well as around 15 invited and featured articles and more than 5 patents applied for in her credit. She represents various national level technical committees as solar PV experts and is a life member of various professional and academic organizations. Professor Tariq Muneer, Professor of Energy Engineering at Napier University, Edinburgh currently chairs an active group engaged in research on ‘Sustainable Energy’. Professor Muneer is an international authority on the subject of solar energy and its use in buildings with over 35 years experience. He is the author of over 215 technical articles, most of which have been distilled in his research monographs. Professor Muneer is also a visiting professor for the period of 2013-2020 for the following the University of Granada, Granada, Spain and the University of Maribor, Celje campus, Slovenia. Professor Muneer is the co-ordinator of Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers’ Solar Data Task Group and in this capacity he has been involved in the production of the CIBSE Guides A& J for Weather and Solar Data. Professor Muneer has also been employed both by the government and industry as a consultant on a large number of engineering projects. Professor Muneer has been awarded several prestigious awards including the Royal Academy of Engineering Industrial Fellowship (2000-02), the Royal Academy of Engineering Engineers Secondment Overseas (1995), the Leverhulme Trust (1989) and the University College, Oxford/General Electric Company (1989) Research Fellowships. He is also the recipient of the Osmania University’s Karamat Jung Gold Medal (1974), CIBSE Carter Bronze Medal (1990), CIBSE Napier Shaw Bronze Medal (1999), Millennium Commission’s Fellowship Award (1999), Walsh-Weston (Society of Light & Lighting, London) Award (2002), Services to Industry Group’s Proof of Concept award (2003) and the Scottish Green Energy, Highly Recommended Best Renewable Award (2006). Under Professor Muneer’s supervision 3 MPhil and 28 PhD candidates have successfully gained their awards. A further five doctoral programmes are currently underway.Professor Muneer has been a PI for one EPSRC grant that dealt with solar radiation and daylight modelling and a co-investigator for two further EPSRC grants that dealt with the subject areas of ‘climate change’ and ‘decentralised grids’. He has several research monographs and books in his credit Professor (Dr) Mohan Kolhe is with the University of Agder (Norway) as full professor in electrical power for smart grid and renewable energy in the Faculty of Engineering and Science. He has also received the offer of full professorship in smart grid from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU). He has more than two decades academic experience at international level on electrical and renewable energy systems. He is a leading renewable energy technologist and has previously held academic positions at the world's prestigious universities e.g. University College London (UK / Australia), University of Dundee (UK); University of Jyvaskyla (Finland); Hydrogen Research Institute, QC (Canada) etc. He was also a member of the Government of South Australia’s Renewable Energy Board (2009-2011). His academic work ranges from the integration of renewable energy systems, smart grid, integrated renewable energy systems for hydrogen production, fuel cell applications for small cars, techno-economics of energy systems, solar energy engineering, and development of business models for distributed generation and also did extensive teaching in the area of renewable and electrical energy systems engineering and economics. He has been successful in winning research funding from prestigious research councils (e.g. EPSRC, BBSRC, EU, NRP, etc.) for his work on sustainable energy systems. He has published extensively in the area of energy systems engineering. He has been invited by many international organizations for delivering expert lectures / courses / key note addresses. He has also been member of many academic promotional committees.

Foreword 6
Preface 8
Contents 10
1 Introduction 11
Abstract 11
1 Background 11
1.1 Solar PV-Based Off-grid Electrification 13
2 Purpose and Coverage of This Book 15
References 16
2 Solar Radiation Fundamentals and PV System Components 17
Abstract 17
1 Trends in Solar PV Technologies 18
1.1 Introduction 18
1.2 PV Technologies 20
1.3 Market Share of Different PV Technologies 22
1.4 Trend in PV Technology Research 22
1.5 Materials, Cells and Modules 25
1.6 Physical Characteristics 25
1.6.1 Single Crystal or Monocrystalline Silicon Cell 26
1.6.2 Polycrystalline or Multicrystalline Silicon 26
1.7 Semiconductors 27
1.8 Thin Film (Non-silicon) 27
1.9 Amorphous Thin Film 28
1.10 Emerging Solar PV Technology 29
1.11 Efficiency 30
1.12 PV Modules 31
1.13 PV String 31
1.14 PV Array 31
1.15 Size and Shape 33
1.16 Structure Support and Fixing 34
1.17 Comparative Analysis of Different PV Technologies 34
1.18 Trend in Batteries 34
1.19 Trend in Inverters 40
1.19.1 Single Stage/Central Inverter 41
1.19.2 Double or Multi-stage Inverter 42
1.19.3 Multi-string Multi-stage Inverters with High Frequency Transformer 42
1.19.4 Inverter Conversion Efficiency 43
1.19.5 Charge Controllers 43
1.20 Cabling 44
1.21 Metering 45
2 Trend in Solar Radiation Measurement and Modelling Techniques 45
2.1 Introduction to Solar Radiation 45
2.2 Fundamentals of Solar Radiation 46
2.2.1 Day Number 46
2.2.2 Julian Day Number and Day of the Week 46
2.2.3 Equation of Time 47
2.2.4 Apparent Solar Time 47
2.2.5 Solar Declination 48
2.2.6 Solar Geometry, SOLALT and SOLAZM 48
2.3 Relevance of Solar Resources Assessment in Solar PV Plant Implementation 48
2.4 Different Solar Radiation Measurement Techniques 49
2.4.1 Equipment Error and Uncertainty 52
2.4.2 Types of Sensors and Their Accuracies 54
2.5 GIS Mapping of Solar Resource Potential 54
3 Conclusion 55
Acknowledgments 56
References 56
3 PV System Design for Off-Grid Applications 58
Abstract 58
1 Introduction 59
1.1 Types of Solar PV Systems 59
2 Guidelines for Designing of Stand-Alone Solar PV Systems 60
2.1 Planning and Site Survey 60
2.2 Assessment of Energy Requirement 62
2.3 Load Assessment 62
2.4 Load Profiling and Load Categorization 62
2.5 Assessment of Solar Energy Resources 64
2.6 System Configuration 64
2.7 Sizing of Main Components of the PV System 65
2.8 Standard Sizing and Design Steps for Components of PV System 66
3 Design and Actual Implementation of Solar PV System for Lighting and Livelihood Applications 75
3.1 Design and Actual Implementation of Solar PV System for Lighting Applications 76
3.2 Design and Actual Implementation of Solar Charging Station for Lanterns 76
4 Role of Photovoltaic System in Future Smart Micro-Grid 79
4.1 What Is Future PV-Based Smart Micro-Grid Will Look Like? 79
4.2 Future Grid Interconnection Option for Solar PV Systems 81
4.3 Overview of PV-Based Active Generator 82
4.4 Battery Storage and Ultra-Capacitor (Energy Storage System) 84
4.5 PV-Based Active Generator in Future Micro-Grid Environment 87
4.6 Energy Management in Micro-Grid 88
4.7 Conclusion 90
References 91
4 PV Component Selection for Off-Grid Applications 93
Abstract 93
1 Introduction 93
2 Guidelines for the Selection of Solar PV Components for Off-Grid Applications 94
3 Guidelines for the Selection of PV Modules 94
3.1 PV Module Electrical Characteristics 95
3.2 PV Module Temperature Tolerance and Hail Impact Resistance 96
3.3 PV Module Efficiency, Dimensions and Weight 97
3.4 PV Module with System Compatibility 98
3.5 PV Module Quality Requirement, Quality Marks, Standards and Specifications 98
3.6 PV Module Warranties 98
3.7 Performance Comparison of Different PV Technologies 99
4 Guidelines for Battery Selection 99
4.1 Battery Capacity 101
4.2 Life of a Battery 103
4.3 Self-discharge of a Battery 103
4.4 Comparison of Batteries Available in the Market 104
5 Guidelines for the Selection of Inverters 105
5.1 Selection of Inverters Based on Its Configurations 105
5.1.1 Single-Stage/Central Inverter 105
5.1.2 Double- or Multistage Inverter 106
5.1.3 Multi-string Multistage Inverters with High-Frequency Transformer 106
5.2 Selection of Inverters Based on Switching Devices 106
5.3 Selection of Inverters Based on Operational Perspectives 107
5.4 Features of Grid Connectivity 107
5.5 AC Voltage and Frequency Range 107
5.6 Operational DC Voltage Range 107
5.7 AC Harmonic Current from the Inverter 108
5.8 Inverter Conversion Efficiency 108
5.9 Operational Environment 108
5.10 Required Protection Devices or Functions 109
5.11 Standby Power Consumption 110
5.12 Inverter System Cost, Size and Weight 110
5.13 System Guarantee 111
6 Selection of Protective Devices 111
6.1 PV Source Circuit Combine Box and PV Fuse Disconnect 112
6.2 Battery Fuse Disconnect 112
6.3 Grounding 112
6.4 Lightning Arrestor 113
6.5 Surge Protector 113
6.6 Cables and Wires 113
7 Conclusion 114
References 114
5 Performance of Solar PV Systems 115
Abstract 115
1 Introduction 115
2 PV System Modelling and Design 116
2.1 PV Output Modelling 116
2.2 Factors Affecting PV System Performance 117
2.2.1 Irradiance 117
2.2.2 Cell Temperature 118
2.2.3 Solar Altitude and Solar Spectrum 119
3 Actual Performance Evaluation of PV Facilities 119
3.1 Assessment of PV Facility at Edinburgh Napier University 120
3.1.1 Measurement Facility 120
3.1.2 Local Meteorological Measurement 122
3.1.3 Analysis and Results 122
3.2 Assessment of PV Facility in Turkey 125
3.2.1 Photovoltaic Module and Experimental Setup 126
3.2.2 Data Gathering 127
3.2.3 Results and Discussion 127
3.3 Assessment of PV Facility at Cardiff University 128
3.3.1 PV System Design 129
3.3.2 PV System Monitoring 129
3.3.3 Result and Discussion 129
3.3.4 Assessment of PV Facility at Edinburgh College 130
3.3.5 Plant Specification 131
3.3.6 Experimental Site 131
3.3.7 Results and Discussion 132
4 Off-Grid Electricity System at Isle of Eigg (Scotland) 136
4.1 Introduction 136
4.2 Off-Grid Electricity System 137
4.3 Investment, Timeline and Management 139
4.4 Simulation of Load Assessment 140
4.5 Resource Assessment 141
4.6 Result and Discussion 141
5 Conclusion 142
References 143
6 Economics and Management of Off-Grid Solar PV System 144
Abstract 144
1 Introduction 145
2 Basic Concepts of Techno-Economic Analysis of Solar PV Systems 146
2.1 Basic Terms and Formulae in Financial Analysis 146
2.2 Computing the Cost of Generation of Electricity from an Off-Grid Solar Photovoltaic Power Plant 151
2.3 Components of Cash Flows for Off-Grid Solar PV Power Plants 152
2.4 A Simple Illustrative Example 155
3 Site-Specific Considerations for Selecting System Configurations and Designing Business Models 158
3.1 Characteristics of Off-Grid Sites and Important Considerations for Selecting System Configurations and Business Models 159
3.2 Beyond Kilo-Watt Hours: Options for Off-Grid Customers 162
3.2.1 Solar Lanterns, Home Lighting Systems and Other Stand-alone Systems 162
3.2.2 Solar Charging Stations 162
3.2.3 Solar Multi Utilities for Productive Activities 163
4 Case Studies 164
4.1 TERI's Lighting a Billion Lives (LaBL) Programme 165
4.2 DC Microgrids Under the Norwegian Framework Agreement 166
4.3 Mera Gaon Power (MGP): DC Microgrids 166
4.4 Mlinda Foundation's AC Pico-Grids 167
5 Conclusion 169
Acknowledgements 170
References 170
7 Hybrid Energy System for Rural Electrification in Sri Lanka: Design Study 172
Abstract 172
1 Introduction 173
2 Load Demand of a Rural Community 173
2.1 Electric Load 174
3 Energy Technologies for Hybrid Energy System 175
3.1 Solar Energy 175
3.2 Wind Energy 176
3.3 Battery Energy Storage 176
3.4 Diesel Generator 177
4 Hybrid System Configuration 178
5 System Cost 178
6 Technical Parameters of the System 180
7 Optimum System Design 181
8 System Performance 182
8.1 Effect of Changes in Annual Average Wind Speed and Solar Resource Changes 183
8.2 Effect of Load Changes 183
9 Economic Viability 186
10 Grid Connection of the Hybrid System 187
11 Conclusion 189
References 190