Air Transport System (eBook)

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Volker Gollnick studied mechanical engineering at the Technical University of Braunschweig. After his degree in 1991 he worked as a flight test engineer and project manager at the German Forces Flight Test Center before he became a project manager for aerospace test and simulation systems and the head of department for Cockpit Systems and Simulation at Eurocopter, Munich in 1999. Since 2007 he is director of the institute "Air Transportation Systems" at the University of Hamburg-Harburg. Also he is director of the DLR-research group for Air Transportation Systems and Technology Assessment.Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dieter Schmitt earned his degree in in mechanical engineering at the Technical University of Darmstadt. After his promotion in 1976 he worked as an flight mechanics engineer at MBB (Hamburg) before he became the general manager of the Research and Development Department at Airbus in Toulouse. From 1996 to 2002 he was head of the Institute of Aviation Technologies at the Technical University Munich. Until 2007 he was vice-president for "Future Projects and Technologies" at Airbus and is now retired.

Preface 5
Contents 7
1 The Air Transport System 13
Abstract 13
1.1 Introduction 13
1.2 Passenger Expectations 15
1.3 Transport and Mobility 16
1.4 The Air Transport System Today 18
1.5 Current Challenges of the Air Transport System 21
1.6 A Systematic Description of Air Transport 22
1.7 Air Transport System Performances 26
References 28
2 Historical Development of Air Transport 30
Abstract 30
2.1 The Dream of Flying 30
2.2 Physics Based Approach 31
2.3 The Technically Based Approach 33
2.4 The Beginning of Civil Air Transportation 36
2.5 The Jet Age 41
2.6 Development of Civil Transport Operation (Airlines and Airports) 45
2.6.1 Airlines 45
2.6.2 Development of Airports 46
References 48
3 Market Aspects 50
Abstract 50
3.1 The Strategic Importance of Aerospace 50
3.1.1 From a US Monopoly Status to a Duopoly Situation 52
3.2 Specific Aspects of Aeronautics 55
3.2.1 WTO Role and Activities 56
3.3 The Instruments for Market Predictions (Market Forecast Methods) 58
3.3.1 Top-Down Approach 59
3.3.2 Bottom-Up Approach 61
3.3.3 Scenario Techniques for Risk Assessment 65
3.4 Passenger Aircraft Market 68
3.5 Air Cargo Market 70
3.5.1 Cargo Operators 70
3.5.2 Freight Market Forecast 72
3.5.3 Changes in the Aircraft Market 74
3.6 Cost and Commonality Aspects 75
3.6.1 Life Cycle Cost 75
3.6.2 Family Concepts and Commonality Aspects 78
3.6.3 Cross Crew Qualification 80
References 81
4 The Regulatory Framework of the Air Transportation System 83
Abstract 83
4.1 The Freedom of the Air 83
4.2 Regulations for Transportation 84
4.3 International and National Organizations 85
4.3.1 The International Civil Aviation Organization---ICAO 86
4.3.2 National and European Regulatory Organizations 86
4.3.3 Air Navigation Services 91
4.3.4 The International Air Transport Association 92
4.4 Aviation Safety 93
4.4.1 Aviation Safety Philosophy 93
4.4.2 Establishing Aircraft Airworthiness 98
4.4.3 Standards for Safe Aircraft Operations 104
4.4.4 Operational Safety Aspects 107
4.4.4.1 Master Minimum Equipment List 107
4.4.4.2 Extended Twin Engine Operations (ETOPS) 108
4.4.4.3 Weather Conditions Affecting Air Transportation Safety 110
4.4.4.4 Bird Strike 110
4.4.4.5 Controlled Flight into Terrain 112
4.4.4.6 Human Misbehaviour During Ground Operations 112
4.5 Security Aspects of Air Transportation 114
References 116
5 Aircraft Characteristics 117
Abstract 117
5.1 Classification of Flight Vehicles 117
5.2 Cabin Design, Focus for the Airlines 119
5.2.1 Transportation Task Requires Volume and Space 119
5.2.1.1 Cabin Requirements 119
5.2.1.2 Passenger Requirements 120
5.2.1.3 Reference Passenger 121
5.2.2 Cabin Design 123
5.2.3 Fuselage Cross Section, Floor Area (2-D Aspects) 126
5.2.4 Cabin Layout for Several Comfort Standards (3-D Cabin) 130
5.2.5 Aircraft Cabin Systems 132
5.2.5.1 Air Conditioning System 133
5.2.5.2 Other Cabin System Aspects 134
5.3 Basics of Flight Physics 135
5.3.1 ICAO Standard Atmosphere 136
5.3.2 Aircraft Forces: Lift, Weight, Drag, Thrust 138
5.3.3 Lift 139
5.3.4 Drag 142
5.3.5 Aerodynamic Efficiency 143
5.3.6 Aircraft Mass Breakdown 144
5.3.7 Thrust Requirements 147
5.3.8 Aircraft Stability and Control 151
5.4 Structure, Mass and Balance 153
5.4.1 Structural Components 153
5.4.2 Mass Breakdown 155
5.4.3 Payload---Range Diagram 155
5.4.4 Weight and Balance 157
5.5 Flight Performance and Mission 157
5.5.1 Flight Envelope 157
5.5.2 Definition of Speed 159
5.5.3 Flight Mission 160
5.5.4 Take-off and Landing 161
5.5.5 Cruise Performance 162
5.5.5.1 Specific Air Range 163
5.5.5.2 Breguet Formula 163
References 165
6 Aircraft Manufacturer 166
Abstract 166
6.1 Role of Aircraft Manufacturer 167
6.1.1 Industry Mergers 168
6.1.2 Market Duopoly ``Airbus Versus Boeing'' 169
6.1.2.1 The People Mover 171
6.1.2.2 The Small Long Range Aircraft 171
6.2 Industrial Organization 172
6.3 Development Process (From Idea to Product) 174
6.3.1 Product Definition 175
6.3.2 Aircraft Program Decision Point ``Go Ahead'' 177
6.3.3 Product Development 179
6.3.4 Production Phase 182
6.4 Production Process and Work Share 182
6.5 Cash Flow and Manufacturing Cost 185
6.5.1 Cash Flow Calculation 186
6.6 Engine Manufacturer 189
6.7 Supply Chain 191
6.8 Offset Agreements 193
References 194
7 Airlines 196
Abstract 196
7.1 Overview 196
7.2 Airline Types 198
7.2.1 National or Flag Carrier 200
7.2.2 Charter Carrier 202
7.2.3 Low Cost Carrier 202
7.2.4 Alliances 205
7.2.5 Air Cargo Provider 208
7.3 Network Management 211
7.3.1 Traffic Flows and Networks 211
7.3.2 Flight Planning 215
7.3.2.1 Time-Based Steps in Flight Planning 215
7.3.2.2 Influencing Factors in Flight Planning 216
7.3.3 Flight Plan Utilization and Ticket Pricing 217
7.3.3.1 Control of Demand and Price 218
7.3.3.2 Customer Segmentation and Product Development 219
7.4 Fleet Strategy and Aircraft Selection 220
7.5 Flight Operations 222
7.5.1 Stations 222
7.5.2 Passenger Services, Sales and Special Services 223
7.5.3 Aircraft Handling---Turnaround 224
7.5.4 Cargo and Baggage Handling 226
7.6 Aircraft Maintenance 226
7.6.1 Maintenance, Repair, Overhaul 226
7.6.2 Maintenance Management and Organization 227
7.6.2.1 Line Maintenance and Technical Handling 228
7.6.2.2 Light Maintenance (A- or C-Check) 228
7.6.2.3 Heavy Maintenance and Aircraft Overhaul (D-Check) 228
7.6.2.4 Scheduled Maintenance 228
7.6.2.5 On Condition Maintenance 229
7.6.2.6 Unscheduled Maintenance 230
7.7 Airline Organization 230
References 231
8 Airport and Infrastructure 233
Abstract 233
8.1 Role of Airport 233
8.1.1 Location of the Airport 235
8.1.2 Intermodality Aspects 235
8.1.3 Classification of Airports 236
8.1.4 Important Airport Elements and Characteristics 237
8.1.5 Airport as Economy Driver 238
8.2 Regulatory Issues, Safety and Security 240
8.3 Regulatory Issues 240
8.3.1 Airport Safety and Security 240
8.4 Airport Operation and Services 241
8.4.1 Aircraft Handling Process at the Airport 242
8.4.2 Definition of Major Airport Elements and Services 244
8.4.3 Turnaround Process 248
8.4.4 Airport Check-in 251
8.4.5 Baggage Handling at the Airport 252
8.4.6 Freight Handling 252
8.4.7 Fuel and Energy Needs 254
8.4.8 Business Aspects 255
8.5 Airport Planning---Infrastructure 256
8.5.1 Airport Planning Process 257
8.5.2 Terminal Layout 259
8.5.2.1 Terminal Area, Separating Arrival and Departure Streams 261
8.5.2.2 Passenger Boarding Bridges 262
8.5.2.3 Terminal Elements 263
8.5.3 Runways, Taxiways and Aircraft Geometry Codes 263
8.5.3.1 Runways 263
8.5.3.2 Runway Loading---Aircraft and Pavement Classification 265
8.5.3.3 Taxiways 266
8.5.3.4 Codes for Aircraft Sizes and Limitations 267
8.5.4 Planning of Baggage and Cargo Handling 268
8.5.4.1 Baggage Handling System 268
8.5.4.2 Cargo Handling 269
8.5.5 Specific Critical Airport Elements 271
8.5.5.1 Fuel Storage Centre 271
8.5.5.2 Rescue and Fire Fighting 272
8.5.5.3 Winter Operation and Aircraft de-Icing 273
De-icing of Aircraft 274
Cleaning of Operational Surfaces at the Airport 274
8.5.5.4 Other Airport Services 275
References 276
9 Air Navigation Services 278
Abstract 278
9.1 Principles of Operation---The Role of the Air Navigation Services 279
9.2 Airspace Structures 282
9.3 Airspace and Airport Capacity 286
9.4 Aircraft Separation 288
9.5 Flight Guidance Systems 290
9.5.1 Navigation Systems 291
9.5.1.1 Radio Navigation Systems 292
Distance Measurement Equipment 293
Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Radio Range 294
Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) 295
Radio Navigation Errors and Deficiencies 295
9.5.1.2 Satellite-Based Navigation 296
9.5.1.3 Instrumental Landing Systems and Landing Minima 297
9.5.1.4 Inertial Navigation 299
Gyroscopes 300
Accelerometers 300
9.5.2 Future Trends in Navigation 300
9.5.3 Air Transport Surveillance 301
9.5.3.1 Physical Characteristics of Radar Systems 303
9.5.3.2 Primary Surveillance Radar 305
9.5.3.3 Secondary Surveillance Radar 307
9.6 Communication Systems 308
9.6.1 Voice Radio Communication 308
9.6.2 Data Link Communication 309
9.7 Integrated Air Traffic Management and Control Systems 309
9.7.1 Multilateration (MLAT) 312
9.7.2 Airborne Collision Avoidance Systems 312
9.7.3 Terrain Awareness and Warning System 312
9.7.4 Interfaces Between ATM and Aircraft 313
9.8 Navigation Fees 314
9.8.1 Take-off and Landing Charges 314
9.8.2 En Route Charges 315
References 316
10 Environmental Aspects of Air Transport 318
Abstract 318
10.1 Introduction 319
10.2 Air Transport Emissions Impact on the Climate 320
10.2.1 Aircraft Emissions 323
10.2.2 Physical Principles of the Atmosphere 325
10.2.2.1 Carbon Dioxide 326
10.2.2.2 Nitrogen Oxide 328
10.2.2.3 Contrails 329
10.2.3 Emission Impact Assessment in Air Transport 333
10.2.3.1 Regulatory Measures to acquire Aircraft Emissions 333
10.2.3.2 Climate Impact Metrices 336
10.2.4 Measures for Emission Reductions 337
10.3 Noise and Sound of Air Transport 339
10.3.1 Some Basics of Medical Noise Impacts 339
10.3.2 Basics of Noise and Aeroacoustics 341
10.3.3 Noise Requirements for Aircraft 344
10.3.4 Aircraft Noise Sources and Potential for Reduction 347
10.3.4.1 Approaches to reduce aircraft noise 348
References 351
11 Challenges and Competition of Air Transport 353
Abstract 353
11.1 Global Challenges for Air Transport 2050 354
11.2 Future Energy Provision and Alternative Fuels for Air Transport 357
11.3 Competitive and Multimodal Air Transport 364
11.4 Technology Trends 370
11.4.1 Technology Perspectives in Aircraft Design 371
11.4.1.1 Lightweight Structures 372
11.4.1.2 Aeroelastic Tailoring 373
11.4.1.3 Aerodynamic Drag Reduction 373
11.4.1.4 Future Engine Development 374
11.4.1.5 More Electric Aircraft 375
11.4.1.6 New Business Areas in Aircraft production 376
11.4.2 Perspectives in Air Traffic Management 376
11.4.3 Perspectives in Airport Operations 377
11.5 Integrated Approaches Towards Future Air Transport 379
11.6 Compliance Achievement with Flightpath 2050 380
References 381