Wind Energy Essentials (eBook)

Richard Walker has many years of experience in both the electric power and the wind energy industries, in addition to teaching wind energy at Texas Tech University. During his career, he has been involved in electric transmission engineering, solar energy, research and development, state and federal governmental affairs, and the development of over 1,600 MW of wind farms currently in operation (including the first utility-scale wind farm in Texas and the 782 MW Roscoe wind farm, which for several years was the world's largest wind energy project). Andrew Swift is presently Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering and the Associate Director of the National Wind Institute at Texas Tech University, where his focus is on wind energy education and workforce development. His previous academic appointments include Director of the Wind Science and Engineering Research Center at Texas Tech and Dean of the College of Engineering at the University of Texas at El Paso.

Preface

Foreword

About the Authors

Dedication and Acknowledgements

Chapter 1: Impacts of Energy and Electricity on Society

1.1 What are "Social and Environmental Impacts"?

1.2 Early Wind Power Innovation and Discovery

1.3 Impact of Electricity on Society

1.4 History of Wind Energy for Electricity Production

1.5 Renewables and Electrification in Third-World Countries

1.6 The Nexus of Wind, Water, and Electricity

1.7 References

Chapter 2: The Basics of Electricity

2.1 Units of Electrical Measurement

2.2 Descriptions of Common Electrical Equipment

2.3 Types of Companies or Business Units within the Electric Industry

2.4 Frequently Asked Questions

2.5 References

Chapter 3: Overview of Wind Energy and Other Sources of Electricity

3.1 Defining Renewable Energy

3.2 Sources and Uses of Energy

3.3 Growth of Renewable Energy in the United States

3.4 Use of Renewable Energy for Electricity Production in the United States

3.5 Growth of Wind Power Capacity in the United States

3.6 Subsidies or Incentives for Wind Energy

3.7 Potential for Increased Use of Wind Energy in the United States

3.8 Wind Resources in the United States

3.9 Overview of Other Sources of Electric Generation in the U.S.

3.10 References

Chapter 4: Conversion of Power in the Wind to Electricity

4.1 Wind Power Plants and Wind Turbines

4.2 Atmospheric Science

4.3 Wind Statistics

Chapter 5: The Wind Energy Development Process

5.1 Requirements for an Economically Viable Wind Energy Project

5.2 Other Factors that Contribute to the Success of a Wind Energy Project

5.3 Potential "Fatal Flaws" to Wind Energy Project Development

5.4 Coordination of the Wind Energy Project Development Process

5.5 Timeline for Developing a Wind Energy Project

5.6 Major Steps in Early Stage Wind Energy Project Development Process

5.7 Major Steps in Latter Stage Wind Energy Project Development

5.8 Final Steps in Developing a Wind Energy Project

5.9 Conclusion

5.10 References

Chapter 6: Overview of Issues Faced by Wind Energy

6.1 The Need to Understand and to Respond to Wind Energy's Issues and Challenges

6.2 Community Relationships and Public Outreach

6.3 General Categorization of Issues

6.4 References

Chapter 7: Wind and Wildlife: Siting Issues and Challenges

7.1 Overview of Wildlife-Related Issues Faced by the Wind Energy Industry

7.2 State and Federal Regulations Relevant to Wind Development's Impact on Wildlife

7.3 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) Guidelines for Wind Development

7.4 Best Management Practices for Wind Energy Development in USFWS Land-Based Wind Energy Guidelines

7.5 Bird Deaths Due to Collisions with Wind Turbine Blades

7.6 Wind Generation Wildlife Issues Not Limited to Avian Collisions

7.7 Avian Species of Concern

7.8 Bat Deaths due to Wind Energy Development

7.9 Organizations Studying Ways to Minimize Effects of Wind Development on Birds and other Wildlife

7.10 Conclusion

7.11 References

Chapter 8: Environmental and Ecological Impacts of Wind Energy on Humans: Public Health

8.1 Overview of Environmental and Ecological Impacts of Wind Energy on Humans

8.2 Wind Turbine Noise: Key Terms

8.3 Estimates of Noise from Wind Turbines

8.4 Potential Health Effects of Audible or Sub-Audible Noise from Wind Turbines

8.5 Noise Ordinances

8.6 Technological Advances that can Reduce Turbine Noise

8.7 Siting Procedures for Mitigating the Noise from Wind Turbines

8.8 Shadow Flicker

8.9 Mitigation of Shadow Flicker

8.10 Electric and Magnetic Fields (EMF)

8.11 Mitigating EMF Exposure from Wind Projects

8.12 Solid and Hazardous Wastes

8.13 Mitigation of Solid and Hazardous Waste Issues

8.14 Conclusion

8.15 References

Chapter 9: Environmental and Ecological Impacts of Wind Energy: Public and Workforce Safety

9.1 Overview of Workforce and Public Safety Issues

9.2 Things Can Go Wrong Anytime Humans are Involved (in any Industry)

9.3 Ice Shedding

9.4 Mitigating Ice Shedding Issues

9.5 Blade Throw

9.6 Mitigating Blade Throw Issues

9.7 Risk of Fire

9.8 Mitigating Risk of Fire

9.9 Lightning

9.10 Other Weather Emergencies: Hurricanes, Tornadoes, Hail

9.11 The Impact of Wind Energy on Vehicular Traffic

9.12 Planning for and Addressing Transportation Issues

9.13 Electrical and Pipeline Safety: Height, Depth, and Location of Electric Lines

9.14 Other Wind Energy Industry Workforce Safety Issues

9.15 Conclusion

9.16 References

Chapter 10: Wind Energy's Impact on Aviation, Radar, and Telecommunications

10.1 Impact of Wind Energy on Military and Civilian Aviation

10.2 Regulatory Requirements and FAA Permitting Process

10.3 FAA Screening Tools

10.4 FAA Requirements for Marking or Lighting of Obstructions

10.5 Marking and/or Lighting of Meteorological Towers

10.6 Potential Impact of Wind Turbines on Aviation or Navigation Radar

10.7 Potential Impact of Wind Turbines on Weather Radar

10.8 Potential Impact of Wind Turbines on Telecommunications

10.9 References

Chapter 11: Other Environmental Issues of Wind Energy Development: Aesthetics, Cultural Resources, Land Use Compatibility, Water Resources, and Site Restoration

11.1 Aesthetic Issues: Wind Energy's Impact on Scenery or Viewshed

11.2 Mitigating Aesthetic Impacts and Issues

11.3 Impact of Wind Energy on Cultural Resources

11.4 Compatibility of Wind Energy Development with Existing Land Use

11.5 Impact of Wind Energy Development on Water Resources

11.6 Removal of Retired Equipment and Restoration of Property

11.7 Best Management Practices for Decommissioning of Wind Energy Projects (from USFWS Land-Based Wind Energy Guidelines)

11.8 References

Chapter 12: Impact of Wind Energy on the Electric Grid

12.1 Overview of Wind Integration Issues

12.2 The Electric Grid

12.3 Wind Penetration

12.4 Issues Which Arise due to Integration of Wind Energy

12.5 Capability of Wind Turbines to Meet Applicable Standards for Grid Interconnection

12.6 Conclusion

12.7 References

Chapter 13: Non-Wind Renewable Energy Sources Used To Meet Electricity Needs

13.1 Comparing Sources of Electric Generation: Attributes That Will Be Considered

13.2 Renewable Energy Generation Resources in the United States

13.3 Hydroelectric Generation

13.4 Solar Energy

13.5 Biomass Energy

13.6 Municipal Solid Waste

13.7 Landfill Gas

13.8 Geothermal Energy

13.9 Energy from the Ocean: Tidal Power and Wave Power

13.10 Hydrogen

13.11 References

Chapter 14: Non-Renewable Energy Sources Used To Meet Electricity Needs

14.1 Comparing Sources of Electric Generation

14.2 Processes or Technologies Used to Produce Electricity

14.3 Comparing Efficiencies of Generation Technologies

14.4 Generation Resources in the United States

14.5 Nuclear Energy

14.6 Coal-Fired Generation

14.7 Natural Gas-Fired Generation

14.8 Oil-Fired Generation

14.9 Methane Hydrates

14.10 References

Chapter 15: Energy Efficiency and Conservation: "Less is More" and "Doing Without"

15.1 Overview

15.2 Concepts

15.3 Consumer Efficiency and Demand Side Management

15.4 Generation and Transmission Efficiency

15.5 Conserving Resources and Reducing Emissions

15.6 Positive Attributes of Energy Efficiency and Conservation

15.7 Limits to Electric Energy Efficiency and Conservation

15.8 References

Chapter 16: Greenhouse Gas Emissions

16.1 Overview

16.2 The Greenhouse Effect

16.3 Fossil Fuels and their Contribution to Greenhouse Gas Levels

16.4 International Political and Economic Issues of Controlling GHG Emissions

16.5 Public Opinion and Policy

16.6 Potential Effects of Global Climate Change

16.7 Methods and Costs of Mitigation

16.8 Conclusion

16.9 References

Chapter 17: Siting and Permitting of Electric Generation Projects

17.1 Federal Law, Regulations, and Permitting Requirements

17.2 Federal Permits, Approvals, or Consultations

17.3 State and Local Permitting

17.4 Public Opposition to Power Plants and Transmission Lines

17.5 Examples of Wind Energy Projects Experiencing Difficulty in Obtaining Required Permits or Approvals

17.6 Examples of Non-Wind Generation Projects Experiencing Difficulty in Obtaining Required Permits or Approvals

17.7 Transmission Line Projects Experiencing Difficulty in Obtaining Required Permits or Approvals

17.8 Checklist for Governmental Approvals

17.9 References

Chapter 18: Economics of Electricity Generation

18.1 Sources of Electricity Generation

18.2 Electrical Demand vs. Supply

18.3 Marginal Cost of Electricity / Energy Value

18.4 Effect of Generation Resource Diversity on Electricity Market Price

18.5 Capacity Value of Electric Generation

18.6 Effect of Capacity Factor on the Economics of Electricity Generation

18.7 Effect of Expected Useful Life or Economic Life of Power Plants on the Economics of Electricity Generation

18.8 Book Depreciation vs. Depreciation for Tax Purposes

18.9 Ad Valorem or Property Taxes

18.10 Federal Energy Support and Subsidies

18.11 Environmental Externalities

18.12 Using Levelized Cost of Energy to Compare Competing Technologies

18.13 Conclusion

18.14 References

Chapter 19: Economic Impacts and Benefits of Wind Energy Projects and Other Sources of Electric Generation

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Potential Economic Benefits of Electric Generation Projects

19.3 Potentially Detrimental Economic Impacts of Electric Generation Projects

19.4 Tax Abatements or other Incentives to Attract Generation Projects

19.5 Summary of Studies Assessing the Economic Impacts of Wind Plants

19.6 Studies on Economic Benefits of Non-Wind Electric Generation Projects

19.7 Opportunities Created by a Transition to a "Clean Energy Economy"

19.8 Conclusions

19.9 References

Chapter 20: Environmental Impacts and Economics of Offshore Wind Energy

20.1 Offshore Wind Resource Areas in the U.S.

20.2 Economics of Offshore Wind vs. On-Shore Wind

20.3 Environmental Impacts Unique to Offshore Wind Energy

20.4 Potential Impacts of Hurricanes

20.5 References

Chapter 21: State and National Energy Policies

21.1 Introduction

21.2 History of U.S. Energy Policy

21.3 Keys Issues within Energy Policy

21.4 Energy Imports

21.5 Governmental Mandates, Targets, or Goals

21.6 Federal Tax Incentives

21.7 Public Benefit Funds

21.8 Feed-in Tariffs

21.9 Net Metering

21.10 Research and Development

21.11 Increasing Restrictions on Fossil Fueled Power Plant Emissions

21.12 Carbon Taxes / Cap-and-Trade Programs

21.13 Conclusion

21.14 References

Chapter 22: Global Wind Energy Policy and Development

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Renewable Energy Development - A Global Perspective

22.3 The Wind Energy Industry's Role in the Global Energy Market

22.4 Wind Energy by Region

22.5 Conclusion

22.5 References

Chapter 23: Wind Energy Workforce, Education, and Jobs

23.1 Historic Growth of the Wind Energy Industry

23.2 Sectors and Locations of Jobs within the Wind Energy Industry

23.3 Projected Growth of the Wind Energy Industry

23.4 Types of Jobs within the Wind Energy Industry

23.5 References

Chapter 24: The Future of Electric Energy

24.1 Supply and Use Projections of Fossil Fuels

24.2 80% Renewables by 2050

24.3 Wind Energy Research and Development

24.4 Smart Grid / Infrastructure Updates

24.5 The Consumer of the Future / Consumer Applications

24.6 Energy Storage

24.7 Clean Energy Transportation: The Role for Wind Energy and Other Renewables in Reducing National Dependence on Petroleum Imports

24.8 Energy and Clean Water: Using Wind to Desalinate and Purify Water

24.9 Electrification in Third-World Countries

24.10 References

Appendix A: Wind Energy Reference Tables

Appendix B: List of Acronyms

Appendix C: Glossary