Front Cover 1
INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL FORENSICS 4
Copyright 5
Contents 6
About the Editors 12
About the Authors 14
SECTION I - BASIC INFORMATION 28
Chapter 1 - Applications of Environmental Forensics 30
1.1 INTRODUCTION 31
1.2 CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND/OR DELINEATION OF CONTAMINATION 32
1.3 RECONSTRUCTING HISTORICAL RELEASES AND ESTABLISHING BACKGROUND 34
1.4 DETERMINATION OF RESPONSIBILITY AND ALLOCATION OF LIABILITY 35
1.5 INSURANCE LITIGATION 42
1.6 TOXIC TORTS 45
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 47
REFERENCES 47
Chapter 2 - Essential Historical Research Methods and Their Application to Environmental Forensics 48
2.1 INTRODUCTION 49
2.2 HISTORICAL RESEARCH FOR SITE ASSESSMENT OR RESPONSIBILITY ASSIGNMENT 49
2.3 HISTORICAL RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS FOR APPORTIONMENT AND COST ALLOCATION 54
2.4 THE HISTORIAN’S CONTRIBUTION TO LIABILITY DETERMINATIONS 55
2.5 THE HISTORIAN’S CONTRIBUTION TO COST ALLOCATION 58
2.6 HISTORICAL RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS FOR MATTERS OF “INTENTIONALITY” 59
2.7 CONCLUSION 63
REFERENCES 63
Chapter 3 - Photogrammetry, Photointerpretation, and Digital Imaging and Mapping in Environmental Forensics 66
3.1 THE AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORD 67
3.2 PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY 68
3.3 PHOTOINTERPRETATION 73
3.4 ANALYTICAL PRODUCTS AND PREPARATION OF EXHIBITS 78
3.5 CASE STUDIES 80
3.6 CONCLUSION 90
REFERENCES 90
Chapter 4 - The Measurement Process 92
4.1 INTRODUCTION 93
4.2 SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL ERRORS IN THE MEASUREMENT PROCESS 94
4.3 PLANNING 101
4.4 SAMPLING DIFFERENT MEDIA 108
4.5 DATA ASSESSMENT 112
4.6 CONCLUSION 119
REFERENCES 119
Chapter 5 - Statistical Methods 126
5.1 INTRODUCTION 127
5.2 BACKGROUND 128
5.3 APPLICATIONS IN ENVIRONMENTAL FORENSICS 140
5.4 CONCLUSION 173
REFERENCES 174
Chapter 6 - Identification of Forensic Information from Existing Conventional Site-Investigation Data 176
6.1 INTRODUCTION 177
6.2 SITE HISTORY 178
6.3 GEOLOGICAL DATA 179
6.4 HYDROGEOLOGICAL DATA 180
6.5 CONTAMINANT CHEMISTRY DATA 183
6.6 HIGH RESOLUTION SITE CHARACTERIZATION (HRSC) DATA 186
6.7 DATA REFLECTING POSTRELEASE CONTAMINANT CONCENTRATION PATTERN CHANGES 187
6.8 CONCLUSION 189
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 190
REFERENCES 190
Chapter 7 - Chemical Partitioning and Transport in the Environment 192
7.1 INTRODUCTION 193
7.2 CHEMICAL PARAMETERS 193
7.3 FUGACITY DESCRIPTION OF PARTITIONING 200
7.4 MASS-TRANSFER MODELS 201
7.5 THE ADVECTION–DISPERSION EQUATION 206
7.6 CONCLUSION 221
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS 222
REFERENCES 223
SECTION II - CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND ISOTOPIC PATTERN-RECOGNITION METHODS 226
Chapter 8 - Hydrocarbon Fingerprinting Methods 228
8.1 INTRODUCTION 229
8.2 OVERVIEW OF CHEMICAL FINGERPRINTING METHODOLOGY 230
8.3 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL 235
8.4 VOLATILE HYDROCARBON FINGERPRINTING METHODS 246
8.5 SEMIVOLATILE HYDROCARBON FINGERPRINTING METHODS 279
REFERENCES 330
Chapter 9 - Source Identification and Age Dating of Chlorinated Solvents 338
9.1 INTRODUCTION 339
9.2 PRODUCT FORMULATIONS AND DIAGNOSTIC STABILIZERS 339
9.3 MANUFACTURING IMPURITIES 346
9.4 MANUFACTURING IMPURITIES TO DISTINGUISH NEW AND USED VAPOR DEGREASING CHLORINATED SOLVENTS 350
9.5 SYMMETRIC TETRACHLOROETHANE FOR AGE DATING PCE AND TCE 351
9.6 COMPOUND-SPECIFIC ISOTOPE ANALYSIS (CSIA) 353
9.7 RECONSTRUCTED CHLORINATED HYDROCARBON PLUME TECHNIQUE 359
9.8 CONCLUSION 362
REFERENCES 362
Chapter 10 - Congeners: A Forensics Analysis 374
10.1 INTRODUCTION 375
10.2 POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS (PAHS) 375
10.3 POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCBS) 380
10.4 DIOXINS AND FURANS 390
10.5 OTHER CHEMICAL FAMILIES 399
10.6 DEVELOPING ANALYTICAL TOOLS FOR FORENSIC STUDIES OF CONGENERS 411
10.7 CONCLUSION 413
REFERENCES 415
Chapter 11 - Application of Stable Isotopes and Radioisotopes in Environmental Forensics 422
11.1 INTRODUCTION 423
11.2 RADIOISOTOPE AGE DATING OF CONTAMINANTS IN SEDIMENTS AND GROUNDWATER 426
11.3 USE OF STABLE ISOTOPES TO IDENTIFY CONTAMINANT SOURCES 428
11.4 BIODEGRADATION 450
11.5 VOCS AND VAPOR INTRUSION 457
11.6 SOURCES AND SINK OF ATMOSPHERIC GASES 458
11.7 COMBINING ISOTOPE METHODS WITH OTHER METHODS 459
11.8 INORGANIC ISOTOPES 465
11.9 SHALE GAS, SHALE OIL, AND HYDROFRACKING 467
11.10 DEVELOPMENTS IN LC/IRMS 469
REFERENCES 469
Chapter 12 - Criminal and Environmental Soil Forensics: Soil as Physical Evidence in Forensic Investigations 484
12.1 INTRODUCTION 485
12.2 SOIL AND FORENSIC CONTEXT 486
12.3 CLASSIC METHODS OF CHARACTERIZING SOIL FOR FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS 490
12.4 THE PRACTICE OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS RELATING TO SOIL 491
12.5 DEVELOPMENTS IN ANALYSIS OF SOIL SAMPLES 494
12.6 CHARACTERIZATION OF SOIL ORGANIC MATTER 495
12.7 MAXIMIZATION OF SOIL EVIDENCE BY INTEGRATION AND USE OF DATABASES 506
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 508
REFERENCES 508
Chapter 13 - Environmental Forensic Microscopy 514
13.1 INTRODUCTION 515
13.2 SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS EQUIPMENT 515
13.3 DETERMINING THE NATURE OF CONTAMINANTS 517
13.4 MEASURING THE EXTENT OF A SPECIFIC CONTAMINANT 520
13.5 CASE STUDIES: EXAMPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL FORENSIC MICROSCOPY INVESTIGATIONS 525
13.6 CONCLUSION 534
REFERENCES 535
Chapter 14 - Hydraulic Fracturing: Data Analysis Methods to Identify Sources of& nbsp
14.1 INTRODUCTION 541
14.2 CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF POTENTIAL SOURCES FOR THE DRINKING WATER WELL IN QUESTION 541
14.3 SAMPLING OF DRINKING WATER WELLS 546
14.4 LABORATORY ANALYSIS 548
14.5 DATA ANALYSIS METHODS TO INVESTIGATE THE SOURCE(S) OF GASES IN DRINKING WATER WELLS 548
14.6 CONCLUSION 554
REFERENCES 555
Chapter 15 - Forensic Applications of Dendroecology 558
15.1 INTRODUCTION 558
15.2 TERMINOLOGY 559
15.3 PRINCIPLES 559
15.4 DENDROECOLOGY/PHYTOSCREENING SAMPLING 561
15.5 SAMPLE PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS 567
15.6 FORENSIC OPPORTUNITIES 568
15.7 INTERPRETATION OF DENDROECOLOGY/PHYTOSCREENING DATA 571
15.8 CONCLUSION 573
REFERENCES 573
SECTION III - FORENSIC MODELING 580
Chapter 16 - Forensic Applications of Subsurface Contaminant Transport Models 582
16.1 INTRODUCTION 583
16.2 CONTAMINANT RELEASES ON A PAVED AND UNPAVED SURFACE 583
16.3 CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT THROUGH A PAVED SURFACE 592
16.4 CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT THROUGH AN UNPAVED SURFACE 596
16.5 CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT THROUGH SOIL 596
16.6 GROUNDWATER MODELS 604
16.7 CONCLUSION 610
REFERENCES 610
Chapter 17 - Forensic Investigation of Underground Storage Tanks and Subsurface Piping 620
17.1 INTRODUCTION 621
17.2 FORENSIC SAMPLING DURING TANK EXCAVATION 621
17.3 HISTORICAL UST STANDARDS 622
17.4 CORROSION 623
17.5 CONCLUSION 633
REFERENCES 633
17 APPENDIX: OBSERVATIONS OF ROSSUM MODEL 635
Chapter 18 - Principal Components Analysis and Receptor Models in Environmental Forensics 636
18.1 INTRODUCTION 637
18.2 PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS ANALYSIS 642
18.3 SELF-TRAINING RECEPTOR-MODELING METHODS 663
18.4 THE INFLUENCE OF ALTERATION PROCESSES ON MIXING MODELS 674
18.5 CONCLUSION 675
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 676
REFERENCES 676
Chapter 19 - Multivariate Statistical Methods and Source Identification in Environmental Forensics 682
19.1 INTRODUCTION 682
19.2 MULTIVARIATE METHODS 683
REFERENCES 701
Chapter 20 - Receptor Models and Measurements for Identifying and Quantifying Air Pollution Sources 704
20.1 INTRODUCTION 705
20.2 THE GENERAL AIR QUALITY MODEL 706
20.3 THE CHEMICAL MASS BALANCE RECEPTOR MODEL 708
20.4 CHEMICAL COMPONENTS (I) 709
20.5 SOURCE PROFILES (J) 715
20.6 SAMPLING PERIODS (K) 715
20.7 PARTICLE SIZE (M) 716
20.8 RECEPTOR LOCATIONS (L) 716
20.9 ESTIMATING UNCERTAINTIES (sCIKL, sFIJ, AND sSJKL) 719
20.10 RECEPTOR-MODEL APPLICATION AND VALIDATION PROTOCOL 720
20.11 CONCLUSION 721
REFERENCES 721
Index 734