Nuclear Engineering

1 Introduction.- 1.1 The General and the Unique.- 1.2 The Law of Laws.- 1.3 A Neutron Population Balance.- 2 Neutron/Nuclei Balance — The Fission Source.- 2.1 Fission Process as an Example.- 2.1.1 Nuclear Binding Energy.- 2.1.2 Excited States or Energy Levels in Atoms and Nuclei.- 2.1.3 The Compound Nucleus.- 2.1.4 The Fission Event.- 2.1.5 Fissile, Fissionable, and Fertile Isotopes.- 2.2 Radioactive Decay.- 2.2.1 Number (Atomic/Molecular) Density, N.- 2.2.2 Statistical and Quantized Nature of Radioactivity.- 2.2.3 The General Radioactive Isotope Balance.- 2.2.4 Decay Constant, Half-Life, and Mean Life.- 2.2.5 Fission Products in Nuclear Reactor Cores.- Rroblems.- 3 Neutron Interaction with Matter.- 3.1 Macroscopic and Microscopic Cross Sections.- 3.2 Neutron Fluxes, Currents, and Beams.- 3.3 Cross-Sections Type.- 3.4 Macroscopic Cross-Sections.- 3.5 Energy Dependence of Cross-Sections.- 3.6 The “Six Factor” Formula.- 3.7 The SIXFAC Program.- 3.8 Calculation of k?.- 3.9 Calculation of k? for a “fast reactor”.- 3.10 Effective multiplication factor, keff.- Problems.- 4 Neutron Diffusion — Basic Concepts.- 4.1 Fick’s Law.- 4.2 The Diffusion Coefficient.- 4.3 Fick’s Law Analogues in Other Branches of Science.- 4.4 The One-group Diffusion Equation.- 4.5 Boundary Conditions.- 4.6 Solution to the One-group Diffusion Equation.- 4.6.1 Solution for a Plane Source.- 4.6.2 Solution for a Point Source.- Problems.- 5 Neutron Balance — Energy.- 5.1 Neutron Moderation.- 5.1.1 The Importance of the Scattering Interaction.- 5.1.2 Evaluation of the Neutron Energy After Scattering.- 5.1.3 The COLLIDE and SCATEREL Programs.- 5.2 Neutron Energy Distribution in the Epithenmal Region.- 5.3 Properties and Classification of Moderators.- 5.4 Thermal Neutrons.- 5.4.1 The Maxwellian Distribution.- 5.4.2 The Thermal Flux.- 5.4.3 Non-1/V Factors.- 5.4.4 Mathematical Properties of a Maxwellian Distribution.- Problems.- 6 Criticality.- 6.1 Criticality and the Neutron Balance Equation.- 6.2 Basic Relationships. The ‘Text Book’ Slab Core.- 6.3 Criticality Condition for the Generic Bare Core.- 6.4 Criticality for Multienergy Group Neutron Balances.- 6.5 Finite Difference Solution Methods.- 6.6 The MULTIDIF (MULTI-group DIF-usion) Code.- Problems.- 7 Neutron Balance — Time.- 7.1 Prompt and Delayed Neutrons.- 7.1.1 Steady State and Time Dependent Neutron Balances.- 7.1.2 Characteristics of Delayed Neutrons.- 7.1.3 Neutron Generation Time.- 7.1.4 Prompt and Delayed Criticality.- 7.1.5 Definition of Reactivity Units.- 7.2 Solution of Kinetics Equations.- 7.2.1 Basic Assumptions Made.- 7.2.2 Single Neutron Group Kinetics.- 7.2.3 Kinetic Equation with Delayed Neutrons.- 7.2.4 The Asymptotic Period.- 7.2.5 The ‘Prompt’ Jump.- 7.2.6 Estimation of Small Reactivities.- 7.3 Reactor Control Methods.- 7.3.1 Types of Reactivity Control.- 7.3.2 PWR Pin Type Control Rods.- 7.3.3 BWR (Cruciform) Control Rods.- 7.3.4 Centrally Located Control Rod.- 7.4 Control Practice.- 7.4.1 Control Rod Worth Curves.- 7.4.2 Impact of a Control-Rod on the Neutron Flux.- 7.4.3 Soluble Poison (Chemical Shim) Control.- 7.5 Temperature and Power Coefficients of Reactivity.- 7.5.1 Reactivity Coefficients.- 7.5.2 The Fuel Temperature (Doppler) Reactivity Coefficient.- 7.5.3 The Moderator Reactivity Coefficient.- 7.5.4 The ‘Void’ Coefficient of Reactivity.- 7.5.5 The Power Coefficient of Reactivity.- 7.5.6 The SIXFACT Code.- 7.6 Fission Product Effects.- 7.6.1 Fission Product Types.- 7.6.2 High Cross Section Fission Products: Xe-135.- 7.6.3 Xe Transients.- 7.6.4 Sm-149 Poisoning.- 7.6.5 Fuel Depletion.- 7.6.6 Long Term Fission Product Buildup.- Problems.- 8 Gamma and Neutron Radiation Effects.- 8.1 Importance of Gamma Rays.- 8.1.1 Fundamental Gamma Ray-Matter Interaction Modes.- 8.1.2 Attenuation Coefficients.- 8.1.3 Energy Deposition.- 8.2 Radiation Units.- 8.2.1 From Source to Dose.- 8.2.2 Units of Source Intensity. Activity.- 8.2.3 Units of the Radiation Field. Exposure.- 8.2.4 Units of Energy Deposition. Dose.- 8.3 Radiation Sources.- 8.3.1 Natural Radiation Sources.- 8.3.2 Manmade Radiation Sources.- 8.3.3 Effects of Radon.- 8.4 Biological Effects of Radiation.- 8.4.1 Radiation Damage Mechanisms.- 8.4.2 Relative Biological Effectiveness.- 8.4.3 Stochastic and Nonstochastic Effects.- 8.4.4 Acute, Latent and Genetic Radiation Effects.- 8.4.5 Calculations. Effective Gamma Ray Doses.- 8.4.6 Calculation External Neutron Doses.- 8.5 Radiation Protection Standards.- 8.5.1 Historical Overview.- 8.5.2 Current Standards. External Radiation.- 8.5.3 Internal Radiations Sources. Calculations.- 8.5.4 Safeguard Standards for Internal Radiation.- Problems.- 9 Shielding.- 9.1 Basic Concepts.- 9.1.1 Characteristics of Shielding Problems.- 9.1.2 Spread of Radiation. Point Source.- 9.1.3 Spread of Radiation. Sources Having Simple Geometries.- 9.2 Buildup Factors.- 9.2.1 Uncolided and Scattered Radiation Beam Components.- 9.2.2 Definition of Buildup Factors.- 9.2.3 Example of the Use of Buildup Factors. Plane Source.- 9.3 Basic Shield Geometries.- 9.3.1 Shielded Infinite Plane Source.- 9.3.2 The Line Source.- 9.3.3 Volumetric Radiation Sources.- 9.4 Computer Methods in Gamma Shield Design.- 9.4.1 Generalized Numerical Integration Methods (MathCAD).- 9.4.2 Point Kernel Methods.- 9.5 Reactor Shielding Problems.- 9.5.1 Fission from the Shielding Perspective.- 9.5.2 Overview of Radiation Types in an Operating Reactor.- 9.5.3 Energy Dependence of Core Radiation.- 9.5.4 Neutron Shielding. The ‘Removal’ Cross Section.- 9.5.5 Methods for Estimating Effectiveness of Core Shields.- 9.5.6 Activation Induced Radiation.- 9.5.7 Coolant Activation.- 9.6 Neutron Shielding. Exact Methods.- 9.6.1 Transport Theory. Basic Definitions.- 9.6.2 Transport Theory. Shielding Applications.- 9.6.3 Coupled Neutron-Gamma Cross Sections.- 9.6.4 Monte Carlo Theory.- Problems.- 10 Core Heat Removal.- 10.1 Core Energy Balance.- 10.1.1 Overview.- 10.1.2 General Energy Balance.- 10.1.3 Energy Balance of PWR’s.- 10.1.4 Energy Balance for BWR Cores.- 10.2 Energy Sources.- 10.2.1 Overview of Fission Energy.- 10.2.2 Fuel Heat Sources.- 10.2.3 Decay Heat.- 10.3 The Heat Transfer Path.- 10.3.1 Heat Conduction Equation.- 10.3.2 Temperature Distribution Calculations for a Fuel Rod.- 10.3.3 Effect of Temperature Dependent Conductivity.- 10.3.4 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficients.- 10.3.5 The FUELROD Program.- 10.4 DNB and CHF Ratios.- 10.4.1 Boiling Correlations.- 10.4.2 CHF and DNB Calculations.- 10.4.3 Hot Channel Factors.- Problems.- 11 Reactor Licensing.- 11.1 The Nuclear Regulatory Commission: Historical Background.- 11.2 The NRC: Organizational Structure and the “Licensing Process”.- 11.2.1 Organizational Structure.- 11.2.2 The “Licensing Process”.- 11.3 Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations (10 CFR).- 11.4 The Design-Basis Accidents.- 11.4.1 Can Accidents be Designed?.- 11.4.2 The Design Base (DB) Accidents.- 11.4.3 The “Small Break” Loss of Coolant Accident (SBLOCA).- 11.5 The Multiple Barriers.- 11.5.1 The Fuel.- 11.5.2 The Cladding.- 11.5.3 The Primary Coolant.- 11.5.4 Reactor Vessel.- 11.5.5 The Containment Building.- 11.5.6 Large Dry Containment.- 11.5.7 Pressure Suppression Containments.- 11.6 Fission Product Release.- 11.6.1 The “Source” Term.- 11.6.2 Buildup of Fission Products Inventory.- 11.6.3 Leakage from Buildings.- 11.7 Atmospheric Dispersion.- 11.7.1 Meteorology of Atmospheric Dispersion.- 11.7.2 Diffusion Relationship.- 11.8 Class Nine Accidents.- 11.8.1 Characteristics of a Class 9 Accident.- 11.8.2 The Class 9 Accident Scenario.- 11.8.3 Generation of Hydrogen.- 11.9 Accident Risk Analysis.- 11.9.1 Society and Risk.- 11.9.2 Quantification of Risk.- Problems.