Figure 1-1 Artist’s rendition of onshore petroleum reservoir 2

Figure 1-2 Artist’s rendition of offshore petroleum reservoir 3

Figure 1-3 Sedimentary environment 4

Figure 1-4 Grain sizes of sediments 5

Figure 1-5 Natural gas reservoirs and trapping mechanisms 7

Figure 1-6 Gas cap 7

Figure 1-7 Phase diagram 10

Figure 1-8 The gas deviation factor for natural gases 15

Figure 1-9 Pseudocritical properties of natural gases 17

Figure 1-10 Pseudocritical temperature adjustment factor, ε3 21

Figure 1-11 Viscosity of natural gases at 1 atm 26

Figure 1-12 Viscosity ratio at elevated pressures and temperatures 26

Figure 1-13 Viscosity of gases at 1 atm 27

Figure 2-1 Offshore seismic data acquisition 37

Figure 2-2 S-wave impedance from AVO inversion for an offshore natural gas bearing structure 39

Figure 2-3 Calculated Poisson ratios for the zone of interest in Figure 2-2 39

Figure 2-4 Seismic attribute of a structure: Ratios of compressional-reflection to shear-reflection amplitudes 40

Figure 2-5 Drilling rig components 42

Figure 2-6 Measured versus extrapolated from correlations drilling fluid densities at high pressures 46

Figure 2-7 Measured drilling fluid densities of four fluids at depth and at predicted temperatures and pressures 46

Figure 2-8a Onshore wellbore example 50

Figure 2-8b Offshore wellbore example 51

Figure 2-9 Selected completion types 51

Figure 2-10 Gas critical flow rate versus flowing tubing pressure for Example 2-5 55

Figure 3-1 Steady-state flow 63

Figure 3-2 Production versus flowing bottomhole pressure for Example 3-1 67

Figure 3-3 A sketch of an openhole vertical well and its cross section 75

Figure 3-4 Turbulence effects in both horizontal and vertical wells 81

Figure 3-5 Effects of index of permeability anisotropy 82

Figure 3-6 Pushing the limits: maximum JD with constraints 88

Figure 3-7 Folds of increase between fractured and unfractured wells 94

Figure 3-8 Fluid flow from reservoir to a transverse fracture 95

Figure 3-9 Chart of iterative calculation procedure 97

Figure 3-10 Productivity comparison among vertical and horizontal wells with and without fracture 98

Figure 3-11 Skin versus permeability in the single transversely fractured horizontal well 99

Figure 3-12 Flow geometry in pipe 100

Figure 3-13 Well deliverability for Example 3-9, k =1 md, Dtbg = 3 in 105

Figure 3-14 Well deliverability for Example 3-9, k =10 md, Dtbg = 3 in 105

Figure 3-15 Well deliverability for Example 3-9, k =10 md, Dtbg = 6.3 in. 106

Figure 3-16 Material balance for Example 3-10 108

Figure 3-17 Production rate, reservoir pressure, and cumulative recovery for Example 3-10 109

Figure 4-1 Generalized gas processing schematic 117

Figure 4-2 Forces on liquid droplet 119

Figure 4-3 Vertical three-phase separator 124

Figure 4-4 Obtain G from the downcomer allowable flow 128

Figure 4-5 Two-phase vertical separator 135

Figure 4-6 Three-phase horizontal separator 140

Figure 4-7 Three-phase horizontal separator with a weir 146

Figure 4-8 Water content of sweet natural gas 153

Figure 4-9 Water content correction for sour natural gas 155

Figure 4-10 Hydrate formation prediction 158

Figure 4-11 A sketch of a typical glycol dehydration process 161

Figure 4-12 Gas capacity for packed glycol gas absorbers for γg = 0.7 at 100°F 161

Figure 4-13 Trays or packing required for glycol dehydrators163

Figure 5-1 Economically preferred options for monetizing stranded natural gas 173

Figure 5-2 Basic pipeline capacity design concept 173

Figure 5-3 Diagram for Example 5-1 176

Figure 5-4 Moody diagram 178

Figure 5-5 Pipeline and compressor station for Example 5-2 179

Figure 5-6 Work needed to compress gas from p1 to p2 181

Figure 5-7 Loading and offloading terminal for LNG and CNG 186

Figure 5-8 Regions actively investigating CNG projects 187

Figure 5-9 Schematic of a CNG vessel 189

Figure 5-10 Schematic of a CNG vessel 190

Figure 5-11 Gas deviation factor Z as function of pressure and temperature for natural gas 190

Figure 5-12 Value of ZT/p as function of pressure and temperature for natural gas 191

Figure 5-13 “Hub-and-Spoke” (left) and “Milk-Run” (right) paths for CNG distribution to N receiving sites (terminals T1,…, TN) 193

Figure 5-14 Potential “Hub-and-Spoke” scheme for CNG distribution to island countries in the Caribbean Sea with large consumption of electricity 194

Figure 5-15 Potential “Milk-Run” scheme for CNG distribution to island countries in the Caribbean Sea with small consumption of electricity 195

Figure 5-16 Scheduling of gas delivery from a single source to a single delivery site using two CNG vessels195

Figure 5-17 Scheduling of gas delivery from a single source to a single delivery point using three CNG vessels 195

Figure 5-18 Scheduling of gas delivery from a single source to a single delivery site using n CNG vessels 196

Figure 5-19 Minimum number of vessels, nmin, required to implement a CNG delivery schedule corresponding to various ratios of consumptions rates over loading rates 197

Figure 5-20 Dependence of vessel capacity and total fleet capacity on the number of vessels, n, for Example 5-4 200

Figure 5-21 Dependence of vessel capacity and total fleet capacity on the number of vessels, n, for Example 5-5 203

Figure 5-22 Schedule development for CNG distribution by n similar vessels to N receiving sites serviced successively on a cyclical path as shown in Figure 5-13 204

Figure 5-23 Destinations for CNG delivery using Milk-Run scheme 207

Figure 6-1 Typical LNG plant block flow diagram 211

Figure 6-2 Typical natural gas/refrigerant cooling curves 213

Figure 6-3 Simple cooler/condenser 216

Figure 6-4 Three-stage process for liquefaction 218

Figure 6-5 Simple flash condensation process 220

Figure 6-6 Simplified schematic of Linde process 221

Figure 6-7 APCI process 223

Figure 6-8 p-H diagram for methane 224

Figure 6-9 Simplified APCI process schematic 225

Figure 6-10 Typical propane precooled mixed refrigerant process 228

Figure 6-11 Optimized cascade process 229

Figure 6-12 Single mixed refrigerant loop 230

Figure 6-13 Mixed fluid cascade process (MFCP) 232

Figure 6-14 IFP/Axens Liquefin. process 233

Figure 6-15 Schematic overview of the DMR refrigeration cycles 235

Figure 6-16 LNG carrier size progression 236

Figure 6-17 Moss type LNG tanker 237

Figure...