Nano– and Microencapsulation for Foods

Hae-Soo Kwak is a Professor in the Department of Food Science and Technology, and Dean of the Graduate School of Industryat Sejong University in Seoul, Korea. Dr Kwak has devoted his research career in nano- and microencapsulation, nanoparticles in food, and dairy products research for the past 25 years, publishing more than 450 revered journal articles, book chapters, patents, invited papers and abstracts in national and international conferences

List of Contributors xiii Preface xvii 1 Overview of Nano- and Microencapsulation for Foods 1 Hae-Soo Kwak 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Nano- or microencapsulation as a rich source of delivery of functional components 3 1.3 Wall materials used for encapsulation 3 1.4 Techniques used for the production of nano- or microencapsulation of foods 4 1.5 Characterization of nano- or microencapsulated functional particles 5 1.6 Fortification of foods through nano- or microcapsules 6 1.7 Nano- or microencapsulation technologies: industrial perspectives and applications in the food market 6 1.8 Overview of the book 8 Acknowledgments 12 References 12 Part I Concepts and rationales of nano- and microencapsulation for foods 15 2 Theories and Concepts of Nano Materials, Nano- and microencapsulation 17 Jingyuan Wen, Guanyu Chen, and Raid G. Alany 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Materials used for nanoparticles, nano- and microencapsulation 19 2.2.1 Polymers 19 2.3 Nano- and microencapsulation techniques 20 2.3.1 Chemical methods 20 2.3.2 Physico-chemical methods 23 2.3.3 Other methods 25 2.3.4 Factors influencing optimization 28 2.4 Pharmaceutical and nutraceutical applications 30 2.4.1 Various delivery routes for nano- and microencapsulation systems 30 2.5 Food ingredients and nutraceutical applications 35 2.5.1 Background and definitions 35 2.5.2 Nanomaterials, nano- and microencapsulation in nutraceuticals 36 2.6 Conclusion 37 References 38 3 Rationales of Nano- and Microencapsulation for Food Ingredients 43 Sundaram Gunasekaran and Sanghoon Ko 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 Factors affecting the quality loss of food ingredients 45 3.2.1 Oxygen 45 3.2.2 Light 47 3.2.3 Temperature 48 3.2.4 Adverse interaction 49 3.2.5 Taste masking 50 3.3 Case studies of food ingredient protection through nano- and microencapsulation 50 3.3.1 Vitamins 51 3.3.2 Enzymes 52 3.3.3 Minerals 53 3.3.4 Phytochemicals 54 3.3.5 Lipids 55 3.3.6 Probiotics 55 3.3.7 Flavors 56 3.4 Conclusion 57 References 58 4 Methodologies Used for the Characterization of Nano- and Microcapsules 65 Minh-Hiep Nguyen, Nurul Fadhilah Kamalul Aripin, Xi G. Chen, and Hyun-Jin Park 4.1 Introduction 65 4.2 Methodologies used for the characterization of nano- and microcapsules 67 4.2.1 Particle size and particle size distribution 67 4.2.2 Zeta potential measurement 75 4.2.3 Morphology 77 4.2.4 Membrane flexibility 80 4.2.5 Stability 82 4.2.6 Encapsulation efficiency 83 4.3 Conclusion 88 Acknowledgements 88 References 88 5 Advanced Approaches of Nano- and Microencapsulation for Food Ingredients 95 Mi-Jung Choi and Hae-Soo Kwak 5.1 Introduction 95 5.2 Nanoencapsulation based on the microencapsulation technology 96 5.3 Classification of the encapsulation system 97 5.3.1 Nanoparticle or microparticle 97 5.3.2 Structural encapsulation systems 100 5.4 Preparation methods for the encapsulation system 106 5.4.1 Emulsification 106 5.4.2 Precipitation 107 5.4.3 Desolvation 108 5.4.4 Ionic gelation 109 5.5 Application of the encapsulation system in food ingredients 109 5.6 Conclusion 110 References 111 Part II Nano- and microencapsulations of food ingredients 117 6 Nano- and Microencapsulation of Phytochemicals 119 Sung Je Lee and Marie Wong 6.1 Introduction 119 6.2 Classification of phytochemicals 120 6.2.1 Flavonoids 120 6.2.2 Carotenoids 124 6.2.3 Betalains 126 6.2.4 Phytosterols 127 6.2.5 Organosulfurs and glucosinolates 128 6.3 Stability and solubility of phytochemicals 129 6.4 Microencapsulation of phytochemicals 130 6.4.1 Spray-drying 131 6.4.2 Freeze-drying 135 6.4.3 Liposomes 136 6.4.4 Coacervation 138 6.4.5 Molecular inclusion complexes 141 6.5 Nanoencapsulation 146 6.5.1 Nanoemulsions 147 6.5.2 Nanoparticles 148 6.5.3 Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) 150 6.5.4 Nanoparticles through supercritical anti-solvent precipitation 152 6.6 Conclusion 153 References 153 7 Microencapsulation for Gastrointestinal Delivery of Probiotic Bacteria 167 Kasipathy Kailasapathy 7.1 Introduction 167 7.2 The gastrointestinal (GI) tract 169 7.2.1 Microbiota of the adult GI tract 169 7.2.2 Characteristics of the GI tract for probiotic delivery 170 7.3 Encapsulation technologies for probiotics 173 7.4 Techniques for probiotic encapsulation 175 7.4.1 Microencapsulation (ME) in gel particles using polymers 175 7.4.2 The extrusion technique 175 7.4.3 The emulsion technique 177 7.4.4 Spray-drying, spray-coating and spray-chilling technologies 179 7.4.5 Microencapsulation technologies for nutraceuticals incorporating probiotics 182 7.5 Controlled release of probiotic bacteria 182 7.6 Potential applications of encapsulated probiotics 183 7.6.1 Yoghurt 184 7.6.2 Cheese 185 7.6.3 Frozen desserts 186 7.6.4 Unfermented milks 186 7.6.5 Powdered formulations 187 7.6.6 Meat products 187 7.6.7 Plant-based (vegetarian) probiotic products 188 7.7 Future trends and marketing perspectives 189 References 191 8 Nano-Structured Minerals and Trace Elements for Food and Nutrition Applications 199 Florentine M. Hilty and Michael B. Zimmermann 8.1 Introduction 199 8.2 Special characteristics of nanoparticles 200 8.3 Nano-structured entities in natural foods 202 8.4 Nano-structured minerals in nutritional applications 202 8.4.1 Iron 202 8.4.2 Zinc 207 8.4.3 Calcium 209 8.4.4 Magnesium 210 8.4.5 Selenium 211 8.4.6 Copper 211 8.5 Uptake of nano-structured minerals 212 8.6 Conclusion 213 References 214 9 Nano- and Microencapsulation of Vitamins 223 Ashok R. Patel and Bhesh Bhandari 9.1 Introduction 223 9.2 Vitamins for food and nutraceutical applications 224 9.2.1 Vitamins: nutritional requirement and biological functions 224 9.2.2 Vitamins: formulation challenges and stability issues 224 9.3 Colloidal encapsulation (nano and micro) in foods: principles of use 227 9.3.1 Solid-in-liquid dispersions 229 9.3.2 Liquid-in-liquid dispersions 232 9.3.3 Dispersions of self-assembled colloids 234 9.3.4 Encapsulation in dry matrices 238 9.3.5 Molecular encapsulation of vitamins in cyclodextrins 239 9.4 Conclusion and future trends 240 References 241 10 Nano- and Microencapsulation of Flavor in Food Systems 249 Kyuya Nakagawa 10.1 Introduction 249 10.2 Flavor stabilization in food nano- and microstructures 250 10.2.1 Application of encapsulated flavors 250 10.2.2 Interactions between flavor compounds and carrier matrices 251 10.2.3 Flavor retention in colloidal systems 251 10.2.4 Flavor retention in food gel 252 10.2.5 Flavor inclusion in starch nanostructure 253 10.3 Flavor retention and release in an encapsulated system 254 10.3.1 Mass transfer at the liquid gas interface 254 10.3.2 Mass transfer at a solid gas interface 258 10.4 Nano- and microstructure processing 259 10.4.1 Spray-drying 260 10.4.2 Freeze-drying 262 10.4.3 Complex coacervation 264 10.5 Conclusion 266 Acknowledgements 267 References 267 11 Application of Nanomaterials, Nano- and Microencapsulation to Milk and Dairy Products 273 Hae-Soo Kwak, Mohammad Al Mijan, and Palanivel Ganesan 11.1 Introduction 273 11.2 Milk 274 11.2.1 Microencapsulation of functional ingredients 274 11.2.2 Microencapsulation of vitamins 278 11.2.3 Microencapsulation of iron 279 11.2.4 Microencapsulation of lactase 281 11.2.5 Nanofunctional ingredients 285 11.2.6 Nanocalcium 287 11.3 Yogurt 287 11.3.1 Microencapsulation of functional ingredients 287 11.3.2 Microencapsulation of iron 288 11.3.3 Nanofunctional ingredients 289 11.4 Cheese 291 11.4.1 Microencapsulation for accelerated cheese ripening 291 11.4.2 Microencapsulation of iron 292 11.4.3 Nanopowdered functional ingredients 292 11.5 Others 293 11.5.1 Microencapsulation of iron 293 11.6 Conclusion 293 References 294 12 Application of Nano- and Microencapsulated Materials to Food Packaging 301 Loong-Tak Lim 12.1 Introduction 301 12.2 Nanocomposite technologies 302 12.2.1 Layered silicate nanocomposites 302 12.2.2 Mineral oxide and organic nanocrystal composites 305 12.2.3 Material properties enhancement of biodegradable/compostable polymers 306 12.3 Intelligent and active packaging based on nano- and microencapsulation technologies 307 12.3.1 Product quality and shelf-life indicators 308 12.3.2 Nano- and microencapsulated antimicrobial composites 312 12.3.3 TiO2 ethylene scavenger for shelf-life extension of fruits and vegetables 317 12.4 Conclusion 318 References 319 Part III Bioactivity, toxicity, and regulation of nanomaterial, nano- and microencapsulated ingredients 325 13 Controlled Release of Food Ingredients 327 Sanghoon Ko and Sundaram Gunasekaran 13.1 Introduction 327 13.2 Fracturation 328 13.3 Diffusion 329 13.4 Dissolution 331 13.5 Biodegradation 333 13.6 External and internal triggering 334 13.6.1 Thermosensitive 335 13.6.2 Acoustic sensitive 336 13.6.3 Light-sensitive 337 13.6.4 pH-sensitive 338 13.6.5 Chemical-sensitive 339 13.6.6 Enzyme-sensitive 339 13.6.7 Other stimuli 340 13.7 Conclusion 340 References 340 14 Bioavailability and Bioactivity of Nanomaterial, Nano- and Microencapsulated Ingredients in Foods 345 Soo-Jin Choi 14.1 Introduction 345 14.2 Bioavailability of nano- and microencapsulated phytochemicals 347 14.3 Bioavailability of other nano- and microencapsulated nutraceuticals 352 14.4 Bioavailability of nano- and microencapsulated bioactive components 355 14.5 Conclusion 357 References 358 15 Potential Toxicity of Food Ingredients Loaded in Nano- and Microparticles 363 Guanyu Chen, Soon-Mi Shim, and Jingyuan Wen 15.1 Introduction 363 15.2 Factors influence the toxicity of nano- and microparticles 365 15.2.1 Size of the nano- and microparticles 366 15.2.2 Shape of the nano- and microparticles 367 15.2.3 Solubility of the nano- and microparticles 367 15.2.4 Chemical composition of the nano- and microparticles 367 15.3 Behavior and health risk of nano- and microparticles in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract 370 15.3.1 Absorption 370 15.3.2 Distribution 371 15.3.3 Excretion/elimination 371 15.4 Toxicity studies of nano- and microparticles 371 15.4.1 Oral exposure studies for toxicity 371 15.4.2 In vitro studies for toxicity 372 15.4.3 Lack of an analytical method model to evaluate the safety of micro- and nanoparticles 373 15.5 Risk assessment of micro- and nanomaterials in food applications 374 15.5.1 Risk assessment 375 15.6 Conclusion 377 References 377 16 Current Regulation of Nanomaterials Used as Food Ingredients 383 Hyun-Kyung Kim, Jong-Gu Lee, and Si-Young Lee 16.1 Introduction 383 16.2 The European Union (EU) 384 16.2.1 Definition 384 16.2.2 The EFSA Guidance 385 16.2.3 Regulation 386 16.3 The United Kingdom (UK) 388 16.4 France 389 16.5 The United States of America (USA) 389 16.6 Canada 391 16.7 Korea 392 16.8 Australia and New Zealand 393 References 393 Index 395