Solid State Electronic Devices

D.K. Bhattacharya currently heads the Ion Implantation Group, Microwave and Instrumentation Group, Hydrophone Group and Quality Promotion Group at the Solid State Physics Laboratory, New Delhi. He has over two decades of experience as a practicing semiconductor scientist including a long association with the MEMS Division , Solid State Physics Laboratory , New Delhi. Rajnish Sharma teaches subjects related to electronic devices at Chitkara University, HP. A PhD from Kurukshetra University and National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, he has served BITS , Pilani as a faculty for almost 6 years.

SYMBOLS; IMPORTANT FORMULAE AND EXPRESSIONS; 1. : ELECTRON DYNAMICS; INTRODUCTION 2; 1.1 CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY THROUGH GASES; 1.1.1 GLOW DISCHARGE; 1.2 MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLE IN ELECTRIC FIELD; 1.2.1 ENERGY ACQUIRED BY ELECTRON; 1.2.2 ELECTRON TRANSIT TIME; 1.3 MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN MAGNETIC FIELD; 1.4 MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLE IN COMBINED ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD; 1.5 CATHODE-RAY TUBE; 1.5.1 FOCUSSING WITH ELECTRIC FIELDS; 1.5.2 FOCUSSING WITH MAGNETIC FIELD; 1.5.3 DEFLECTION SYSTEMS; 2. : GROWTH AND CRYSTAL PROPERTIES OF SEMICONDUCTORS; INTRODUCTION; 2.1 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS; 2.2 TYPES OF SOLIDS; 2.3 CRYSTAL LATTICES; 2.3.1 UNIT CELL; 2.3.2 CUBIC LATTICES; 2.3.3 CRYSTAL PLANES AND DIRECTIONS; 2.3.4 DIAMOND LATTICE; 2.4 ATOMIC BONDING; 2.4.1 VAN DER WAALS BOND; 2.4.2 IONIC BOND; 2.4.3 COVALENT BOND; 2.4.4 METALLIC BOND; 2.5 IMPERFECTIONS AND IMPURITIES IN SOLIDS; 2.5.1 IMPERFECTIONS; 2.5.2 IMPURITIES; 2.6 BULK CRYSTAL GROWTH; 2.6.1 STARTING MATERIAL; 2.6.2 SINGLE-CRYSTAL INGOTS; 2.7 EPITAXIAL GROWTH; 2.7.1 VAPOUR-PHASE EPITAXY; 2.7.2 LIQUID-PHASE EPITAXY; 2.7.3 MOLECULAR BEAM EPITAXY; 3. : ENERGY BANDS AND CHARGE CARRIERS IN SEMICONDUCTORS; INTRODUCTION; 3.1 BONDING FORCE AND FORMATION OF ENERGY BANDS; 3.2 E-K DIAGRAMS; 3.2.1 BAND STRUCTURE MODIFICATION IN SEMICONDUCTORS; 3.4 CHARGE CARRIERS IN SEMICONDUCTORS; 3.4.1 ELECTRONS AND HOLES; 3.4.2 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR; 3.4.3 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR; 3.5 CARRIER CONCENTRATIONS IN SEMICONDUCTORS; 3.5.1 FERMI LEVEL; 3.5.2 EQUILIBRIUM ELECTRON AND HOLE CONCENTRATIONS; 3.5.3 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF CARRIER CONCENTRATIONS; 3.5.4 COMPENSATION; 3.6 CARRIER DRIFT; 3.6.1 MOBILITY AND CONDUCTIVITY; 3.6.2 HIGH-FIELD EFFECT; 3.6.3 HALL EFFECT; 3.7 CARRIER DIFFUSION; 3.7.1 DIFFUSION CURRENT DENSITY; 3.7.2 TOTAL CURRENT DENSITY; 3.8 GRADED IMPURITY DISTRIBUTION; 3.8.1 INDUCED FIELD; 3.8.2 EINSTEIN RELATION; 4. : EXCESS CARRIERS IN SEMICONDUCTORS; INTRODUCTION; 4.1 SEMICONDUCTOR IN EQUILIBRIUM; 4.2 EXCESS CARRIER GENERATION AND RECOMBINATION; 4.2.1 OPTICAL ABSORPTION; 4.2.2 EXCESS MINORITY CARRIER LIFETIME; 4.3 CARRIER LIFETIME (GENERAL CASE); 4.3.1 SHOCKLEY-READ-HALL THEORY; 4.3.2 LOW INJECTION; 4.4 DIFFUSION AND RECOMBINATION; 4.4.1 CONTINUITY EQUATION; 4.4.2 HAYNES-SHOCKLEY EXPERIMENT; 4.5 QUASI-FERMI ENERGY LEVELS; 4.6 SURFACE EFFECTS; 4.6.1 SURFACE STATES; 4.6.2 SURFACE RECOMBINATION VELOCITY; 5. : P-N JUNCTION; INTRODUCTION; 5.1 FABRICATION OF P-N JUNCTIONS; 5.1.1 P-N JUNCTION FORMATION; 5.1.2 THERMAL OXIDATION; 5.1.3 DIFFUSION; 5.2 BASIC P-N JUNCTION; 5.2.1 BASIC STRUCTURE; 5.2.2 NO APPLIED BIAS; 5.2.3 BUILT-IN ELECTRIC FIELD; 5.2.4 SPACE-CHARGE REGION WIDTH; 5.3 REVERSE-BIASED P-N JUNCTION; 5.3.1 ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM; 5.3.2 SPACE-CHARGE WIDTH AND ELECTRIC FIELD; 5.3.2 DEPLETION CAPACITANCE; 5.3.4 ONE-SIDED ABRUPT JUNCTION; 5.4 JUNCTIONS WITH NON-UNIFORM DOPING; 5.4.1 LINEARLY GRADED JUNCTIONS; 5.4.2 HYPER-ABRUPT JUNCTIONS; 5.5 VARACTOR DIODE; 5.6 JUNCTION BREAKDOWN; 5.6.1 ZENER BREAKDOWN; 5.6.2 AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN; 5.7 TUNNEL DIODE; 6. : P-N JUNCTION CURRENT; INTRODUCTION; 6.1 P-N JUNCTION CURRENT FLOW; 6.1.1 CHARGE FLOW IN A P-N JUNCTION; 6.1.2 IDEAL CURRENT-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS; 6.1.3 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS; 6.1.4 MINORITY CARRIER DISTRIBUTION; 6.1.5 JUNCTION CURRENT IN IDEAL P-N JUNCTION; 6.1.6 SHORT DIODE; 6.2 SMALL-SIGNAL MODEL OF P-N JUNCTION; 6.2.1 DIFFUSION RESISTANCE; 6.2.2 DIFFUSION CAPACITANCE; 6.2.3 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT; 6.3 GENERATION-RECOMBINATION CURRENTS; 6.3.1 REVERSE-BIAS GENERATION CURRENT; 6.3.2 FORWARD-BIAS RECOMBINATION CURRENT; 6.3.3 NET FORWARD-BIAS CURRENT; 6.4 JUNCTION DIODE SWITCHING TIMES; 7. : METAL-SEMICONDUCTOR JUNCTIONS AND HETERO-JUNCTIONS; INTRODUCTION; 7.1 METAL-SEMICONDUCTOR CONTACTS; 7.1.1 SCHOTTKY MODEL; 7.1.2 SPACE-CHARGE WIDTH AND JUNCTION CAPACITANCE; 7.1.3 CHARACTERISTICS BASED ON EMISSION MODEL; 7.1.4 SCHOTTKY EFFECT; 7.1.5 TUNNELLING CURRENT; 7.2 EFFECT OF SURFACE STATES AND INTERFACE; 7.3 METAL-SEMICONDUCTOR OHMIC CONTACTS; 7.3.1 SPECIFIC CONTACT RESISTANCE; 7.4 HETEROJUNCTIONS; 7.4.1 ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM; 7.4.2 TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELECTRON GAS; 7.4.3 QUANTUM CONFINEMENT OF CARRIERS; 8. : BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS; INTRODUCTION; 8.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS; 8.2 CURRENT COMPONENTS AND RELATIONS; 8.3 IMPORTANT NOTATIONS AND CONFIGURATIONS; 8.4 BJT CHARACTERISTICS; 8.5 CURRENT GAINS FOR TRANSISTOR; 8.6 MINORITY CARRIER DISTRIBUTION; 8.6.1 BASE REGION; 8.6.2 EMITTER REGION; 8.6.3 COLLECTOR REGION; 8.7 MODELS FOR BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS; 8.7.1 EBERS-MOLL MODEL; 8.7.2 GUMMEL-POON MODEL; 8.7.3 HYBRID-PI MODEL; 8.7.4 H-PARAMETER EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODEL; 8.8 IMPORTANT CONFIGURATION OF BJT; 8.8.1 COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER; 8.8.2 COMMON-BASE AMPLIFIER; 8.8.3 COMMON-COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER; 8.9 THERMAL RUNAWAY; 8.10 KIRK EFFECT; 8.11 FREQUENCY LIMITATION FOR TRANSISTOR; 8.12 WEBSTER EFFECT; 8.13 HIGH-FREQUENCY TRANSISTORS; 8.14 SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF BJT; 8.14.1 SCHOTTKY TRANSISTOR; 9. : FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTOR; INTRODUCTION; 9.1 JUNCTION-FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTOR; 9.1.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLE; 9.1.2 CURRENT-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS; 9.2 METAL-SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTOR; 9.2.1 NORMALLY OFF AND NORMALLY ON MESFETS; 9.2.2 HIGH-ELECTRON-MOBILITY TRANSISTOR; 9.3 BASIC MOS STRUCTURE; 9.3.1 DEPLETION LAYER THICKNESS; 9.3.2 WORK-FUNCTION DIFFERENCE; 9.4 CAPACITANCE-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF MOS CAPACITOR; 9.4.1 INTERFACE TRAPS AND OXIDE CHARGE; 9.4.2 EFFECT OF OXIDE CHARGE ON C-V CHARACTERISTICS; 9.5 MOS FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTOR; 9.5.1 MOSFET CHARACTERISTICS; 9.5.2 SHORT CHANNEL EFFECT; 9.5.3 CONTROL OF THRESHOLD VOLTAGE; 9.5.4 SUBSTRATE BIAS EFFECT; 9.5.5 SUB-THRESHOLD CHARACTERISTICS; 9.5.6 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FOR MOSFET; 9.5.7 MOSFET SCALING AND HOT ELECTRON EFFECTS; 9.5.8 DRAIN-INDUCED BARRIER LOWERING; 9.5.9 SHORT CHANNEL AND NARROW WIDTH EFFECT; 9.5.10 GATE-INDUCED DRAIN LEAKAGE; 9.5.11 COMPARISON OF BJT WITH MOSFET; 9.5.12 TYPES OF MOSFET; 10. : OPTO-ELECTRONIC DEVICES; INTRODUCTION; 10.1 OPTICAL ABSORPTION; 10.1.1 OPTICAL ABSORPTION; 10.1.2 EXCESS CARRIER GENERATION RATE; 10.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS; 10.2.1 P-N JUNCTION SOLAR CELLS; 10.2.2 CONVERSION EFFICIENCY; 10.2.3 EFFECT OF SERIES RESISTANCE; 10.2.4 HETEROJUNCTION SOLAR CELLS; 10.2.5 AMORPHOUS SILICON SOLAR CELLS; 10.3 PHOTODETECTORS; 10.3.1 PHOTOCONDUCTORS; 10.3.2 PHOTODIODES; 10.3.3 PHOTOTRANSISTORS; 10.4 LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES; 10.4.1 LED MATERIALS AND DEVICES; 10.4.2 LOSS MECHANISMS AND STRUCTURE; 10.5 LASER DIODES; 10.5.1 MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES; 10.5.2 POPULATION INVERSION; 11. : POWER DEVICES; INTRODUCTION; 11.1 BIPOLAR POWER TRANSISTORS; 11.1.1 CURRENT CROWDING; 11.1.2 VERTICAL TRANSISTOR STRUCTURE; 11.1.3 TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS; 11.1.4 DARLINGTON PAIR CONFIGURATION; 11.2 POWER MOSFETS; 11.2.1 STRUCTURES; 11.2.2 POWER MOSFET CHARACTERISTICS; 11.3 HEAT SINK; 11.4 SEMICONDUCTOR CONTROLLED RECTIFIER; 11.4.1 FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS; 11.4.2 TWO-TRANSISTOR MODEL; 11.4.3 DEPLETION LAYER WIDTH AND EFFECT OF GATE CURRENT; 11.4.4 BIDIRECTIONAL THYRISTORS; 11.5 GATE TURN-OFF THYRISTOR; 11.6 INSULATED-GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR; 11.7 UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR; 12. : INTEGRATED CIRCUITS AND MICRO-ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS; INTRODUCTION; 12.1 PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY; 12.2 ETCHING TECHNIQUES; 12.2.1 WET ETCHING; 12.2.2 DRY ETCHING; 12.3 PASSIVE COMPONENTS; 12.3.1 RESISTORS; 12.3.2 CAPACITORS; 12.3.3 INDUCTORS; 12.4 BIPOLAR TECHNOLOGY; 12.4.1 BASIC PROCESS; 12.4.2 DIELECTRIC ISOLATION; 12.5 MOSFET TECHNOLOGY; 12.5.1 NMOS PROCESS; 12.5.2 NMOS MEMORY DEVICES; 12.5.3 CHARGE-COUPLED DEVICES; 12.5.4 CMOS TECHNOLOGY; 12.6 MESFET TECHNOLOGY; 12.7 MICRO-ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS; 12.7.1 BASIC PROCESSES; 13. : MICROWAVE DEVICES; INTRODUCTION; 13.1 TYPES OF MICROWAVE DEVICES; 13.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF GUNN AND IMPATT DIODES; 13.2.1 GUNN DIODE; 13.2.2 IMPATT DIODE; 13.3 OPERATION OF TRAPATT AND BARITT DIODES; 13.3.1 TRAPATT DIODE; 13.3.2 BARITT DIODE; 14. : RECTIFIERS AND POWER SUPPLIES; INTRODUCTION; 14.1 SINGLE-PHASE RECTIFIERS; 14.1.1 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER; 14.1.2 FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER; 14.1.3 BRIDGE RECTIFIER; 14.1.4 RIPPLE FACTOR; 14.2 FILTER CIRCUITS; 14.2.1 SHUNT-CAPACITOR FILTER; 14.2.2 ? FILTER; 14.2.3 RC FILTER; 14.3 VOLTAGE REGULATORS; 14.3.1 ZENER DIODE REGULATOR; 14.3.2 SERIES VOLTAGE REGULATOR; 14.4 SWITCHED-MODE POWER SUPPLY; APPENDIX A: IMPORTANT PHYSICAL CONSTANTS; APPENDIX B: IMPORTANT LATTICE CONSTANTS; APPENDIX C: PROPERTIES OF SOME COMMON SEMICONDUCTORS; APPENDIX D: BANDGAPS OF SOME SEMICONDUCTORS RELATIVE TO THE OPTICAL SPECTRUM; APPENDIX E: PROPERTIES OF SILICON, GERMANIUM AND GALLIUM ARSENIDE AT 300 K; APPENDIX F: IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF SI3N4 AND SIO2 AT 300 K; APPENDIX G: TABLE OF THE ERROR FUNCTION; APPENDIX H: THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS; APPENDIX I: INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS; REFERENCES; INDEX