Hydraulic Fracturing Explained

Erle C. Donaldson is an independent consultant and managing editor of the Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering. He was elected to the International Hall of Fame for Science in 1993. He has received a distinguished service award from the Republic of Honduras and other honors from the U.S. Department of Energy, the National Petroleum Engineering Honor Society, and the University of Oklahoma. Dr. Donaldson has written, co-authored, and served as editor on numerous articles and books. Dr. Nasrin Begum is an environmental health scientist who has evaluated environmenal risks (human health and ecological) associated with various chemicals including chemicals related to the petroleum industry. She has over 25 years of experience in toxicological and risk evaluations and has published several papers in refereed journals. She was involved in the analysis of microbial activities for improving petroleum recovery and also for decontaminating petroleum and explosive wastes. She has a Ph.D. in Environmental Health from Colorado State University and a M.S. in Plant Pathology for Oklahoma State University. She is currently working at Tetrahedron, Inc.

Dedication
Foreword
Preface

Acknowledgments


List of Figures
List of Tables
Nomenclature

Acronyms/Abbreviations
Symbols
Greek Letters


CHAPTER 1. Hydraulic Fracturing Explained

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Petroleum Hydrocarbons
1.3 Petroleum Reserves in Shale
1.4 Petroleum Demand
1.5 Achieving Production of Hydrocarbons to Meet Demand
1.6 Hydraulic Fracturing
1.7 Environmental Issues Related to Hydraulic Fracturing


CHAPTER 2. Evaluation of Gas-Shale Formations

2.1 Sedimentary Formations
2.2 Shale Formations
2.3 Multistage Fractures
2.4 Fracture Design (Frac-Implementation)
2.5 Well Design from Surface to Reservoir
2.6 Gas-Shale Reservoir Characterization
2.7 Gamma-Ray Well-Log
2.8 Density/Neutron Log
2.9 Use of Seismic Data


CHAPTER 3. Rock Mechanics of Fracturing

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Young's Modulus of Elasticity (E)
3.3 Poisson's Ratio (v)
3.4 Bulk Modulus (KB)
3.5 Shear Modulus (G)
3.6 Effective Stress
3.7 Mohr Stress Diagram
3.8 Initiation of Fractures
3.9 Propping the Fracture Open


CHAPTER 4. Fracture Fluids

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Oil-Based Fracturing Fluids
4.3 Water-Based Frac-Fluids
4.4 Alcohol-based Frac-fluids
4.5 Acid Frac-Fluid
4.6 Foams
4.7 “Slick-Water”
4.8 Surfactants
4.9 Clay Stabilizers
4.10 Temperature Stabilizers
4.11 Fluid-Loss Additives
4.12 Viscosity Breakers
4.13 Biocides
4.14 Buffers
4.15 Frac-Fluid Preparation
4.16 Conclusion


CHAPTER 5. Field Implementation of Hydraulic Fracturing

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Protecting Groundwater
5.3 Waste Water Management in Hydraulic Fracture
5.4 Fresh Water Management in Hydraulic Fracturing
5.5 Reducing Surface Disturbance
5.6 Controlling Noise, Lighting, and Traffic at Fracturing Job Sites
5.7 Technical Considerations for the Success of Hydraulic Fracture Treatments
5.8 Case Studies of Hydraulic Fracturing


CHAPTER 6. Environmental Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing

6.1 Surface and Subsurface Environmental Effects
6.2 Water Withdrawals
6.3 Surface Spills
6.4 Wastewater Management
6.5 Air Emissions
6.6 Water Impoundments
6.7 Human Health Impacts
6.8 Where to Get Toxicity Information
6.9 Chemicals Present In Hydraulic Fracturing Fluid
6.10 Chemicals Present in Flow-Back Fluids
6.11 Regulations for Protecting the Environment
6.12 Regulations Currently Applicable


APPENDIX A. Viscosity

A.1 Power-Law Fluids


APPENDIX B. Surfactants, Emulsions, Gels, Foams

B.1 Surfactants
B.2 Emulsions
B.3 Foams


APPENDIX C. Calculations

C.1 Subsurface Overburden and Horizontal Stress
C.2 Fracture Initiation Pressure
C.3 Fracture Propagation Pressure
C.4 Matrix Permeability
C.5 Fracture Size
C.6 Rock Matrix Mechanical Properties
C.7 Summary


Glossary
References
Index