Reliability and Failure of Electronic Materials and Devices (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Reliability and Failure of Electronic Materials and Devices 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 8
Acknowledgments 18
Preface 20
Chapter 1. An Overview of Electronic Devices and Their Reliability 24
1.1 Electronic Products 24
1.2 Reliability, Other "... ilities," and Definitions 36
1.3 Failure Physics 40
1.4 Summary and Perspective 54
Exercises 55
References 58
Chapter 2. Electronic Devices: How They Operate and Are Fabricated 60
2.1 Introduction 60
2.2 Electronic Materials 61
2.3 Diodes 76
2.4 Bipolar Transistors 82
2.5 Field Effect Transistors 85
2.6 Memories 97
2.7 GaAs Devices 102
2.8 Electro-optical Devices 107
2.9 Processing—The Chip Level 114
Exercises 123
References 125
Chapter 3. Defects, Contaminants and Yield 128
3.1 Scope 128
3.2 Defects in Crystalline Solids and Semiconductors 130
3.3 Processing Defects 148
3.4 Contamination 164
3.5 Yield 178
Exercises 191
References 194
Chapter 4. The Mathematics of Failure and Reliability 198
4.1 Introduction 198
4.2 Statistics and Definitions 200
4.3 All About Exponential, Lognormal and Weibull Distributions 207
4.4 System Reliability 225
4.5 On the Physical Significance of Failure Distribution Functions 231
4.6 Prediction Confidence and Assessing Risk 245
4.7 A Skeptical and Irreverent Summary 252
Exercises 254
References 258
Chapter 5. Mass Transport–Induced Failure 260
5.1 Introduction 260
5.2 Diffusion and Atom Movements in Solids 261
5.3 Binary Diffusion and Compound Formation 265
5.4 Reactions at Metal–Semiconductor Contacts 271
5.5 Electromigration Physics and Damage Models 282
5.6 Electromigration in Practice 296
5.7 Stress Voiding 307
5.8 Failure of Incandescent Lamps 316
Exercises 319
References 323
Chapter 6. Electronic Charge-Induced Damage 326
6.1 Introduction 326
6.2 Aspects of Conduction in Insulators 327
6.3 Dielectric Breakdown 333
6.4 Hot-Carrier Effects 353
6.5 Electrical Overstress and Electrostatic Discharge 362
Exercises 375
References 378
Chapter 7. Environmental Damage to Electronic Products 382
7.1 Introduction 382
7.2 Atmospheric Contamination and Moisture 383
7.3 Corrosion of Metals 389
7.4 Corrosion in Electronics 396
7.5 Metal Migration 408
7.6 Radiation Damage to Electronic Materials and Devices 414
Exercises 428
References 431
Chapter 8. Packaging Materials, Processes, and Stresses 434
8.1 Introduction 434
8.2 IC Chip-Packaging Processes and Effects 438
8.3 Solders and Their Reactions 458
8.4 Second-Level Packaging Technologies 470
8.5 Thermal Stresses in Package Structures 475
Exercises 490
References 494
Chapter 9. Degradation of Contacts and Package Interconnections 498
9.1 Introduction 498
9.2 The Nature of Contacts 499
9.3 Degradation of Contacts and Connectors 505
9.4 Creep and Fatigue of Solder 515
9.5 Reliability and Failure of Solder Joints 530
9.6 Dynamic Loading Effects in Electronic Equipment 549
Exercises 554
References 558
Chapter 10. Degradation and Failure of Electro-optical Materials and Devices 562
10.1 Introduction 562
10.2 Failure and Reliability of Lasers and Light-Emitting Diodes 563
10.3 Thermal Degradation of Lasers and Optical Components 582
10.4 Reliability of Optical Fibers 591
Exercises 605
References 608
Chapter 11. Characterization and Failure Analysis of Materials and Devices 610
11.1 Overview of Testing and Failure Analysis 610
11.2 Nondestructive Examination and Decapsulation 615
11.3 Structural Characterization 626
11.4 Chemical Characterization 638
11.5 Examining Devices Under Electrical Stress 644
Exercises 658
References 661
Chapter 12. Future Directions and Reliability Issues 664
12.1 Introduction 664
12.2 Integrated Circuit Technology Trends 665
12.3 Scaling 677
12.4 Fundamental Limits 681
12.5 Improving Reliabihty 685
Exercises 692
References 694
Appendix 696
Index 698