Eye Tracking Methodology (eBook)

List of Figures 13
List of Tables 19
Part I Introduction to the Human Visual System (HVS) 24
Visual Attention 25
Visual Attention: A Historical Review 26
Von Helmholtz's ``Where'' 26
James' ``What'' 27
Gibson's ``How'' 27
Broadbent's ``Selective Filter'' 28
Deutsch and Deutsch's ``Importance Weightings'' 28
Yarbus and Noton and Stark's ``Scanpaths'' 29
Posner's ``Spotlight'' 30
Treisman's ``Glue'' 32
Kosslyn's ``Window'' 32
Visual Attention and Eye Movements 33
Summary and Further Reading 35
Neurological Substrate of the HVS 36
The Eye 39
The Retina 39
The Outer Layer 42
The Inner Nuclear Layer 42
The Ganglion Layer 43
The Optic Tract and M/P Visual Channels 44
The Occipital Cortex and Beyond 45
Motion-Sensitive Single-Cell Physiology 46
Summary and Further Reading 47
Visual Psychophysics 49
Spatial Vision 49
Temporal Vision 53
Perception of Motion in the Visual Periphery 55
Sensitivity to Direction of Motion in the Visual Periphery 56
Color Vision 56
Implications for Attentional Design of Visual Displays 58
Summary and Further Reading 59
Taxonomy and Models of Eye Movements 60
The Extraocular Muscles and the Oculomotor Plant 60
Saccades 61
Smooth Pursuits 64
Fixations 65
Nystagmus 66
Implications for Eye Movement Analysis 66
Summary and Further Reading 67
Part II Eye Tracking Systems 68
Eye Tracking Techniques 69
Electro-OculoGraphy (EOG) 70
Scleral Contact Lens/Search Coil 70
Photo-OculoGraphy (POG) or Video-OculoGraphy (VOG) 71
Video-Based Combined Pupil/Corneal Reflection 72
Classifying Eye Trackers in ``Mocap'' Terminology 76
Summary and Further Reading 77
Head-Mounted System Hardware Installation 78
Integration Issues and Requirements 78
System Installation 81
Lessons Learned from the Installation at Clemson 83
Summary and Further Reading 84
Head-Mounted System Software Development 86
Mapping Eye Tracker Screen Coordinates 87
Mapping Screen Coordinates to the 3D Viewing Frustum 87
Mapping Screen Coordinates to the 2D Image 88
Measuring Eye Tracker Screen Coordinate Extents 89
Mapping Flock Of Birds Tracker Coordinates 91
Obtaining the Transformed View Vector 92
Obtaining the Transformed Up Vector 93
Transforming an Arbitrary Vector 94
3D Gaze Point Calculation 94
Parametric Ray Representation of Gaze Direction 97
Virtual Gaze Intersection Point Coordinates 98
Ray/Plane Intersection 98
Point-In-Polygon Problem 100
Data Representation and Storage 101
Summary and Further Reading 103
Head-Mounted System Calibration 104
Software Implementation 105
Ancillary Calibration Procedures 108
Internal 2D Calibration 109
Internal 3D Calibration 112
Summary and Further Reading 113
Table-Mounted System Hardware Installation 117
Integration Issues and Requirements 118
System Installation 120
Lessons Learned from the Installation at Clemson 121
Summary and Further Reading 122
Table-Mounted System Software Development 124
Linux Tobii Client Application Program Interface 125
Tet_Init 126
Tet_Connect, Tet_Disconnect 126
Tet_Start, Tet_Stop 127
Tet_CalibClear, Tet_CalibLoadFromFile, Tet_CalibSaveToFile, Tet_CalibAddPoint, Tet_CalibRemovePoints, Tet_CalibGetResult, Tet_CalibCalculateAndSet 127
Tet_SynchronizeTime, Tet_PerformSystemCheck 129
Tet_GetSerialNumber, Tet_GetLastError, Tet_GetLastErrorAsText 130
Tet_CallbackFunction 131
A Simple OpenGL/GLUT GUI Example 131
Caveats 136
Summary and Further Reading 136
Table-Mounted System Calibration 140
Software Implementation 141
Summary and Further Reading 149
Eye Movement Analysis 151
Signal Denoising 153
Dwell-Time Fixation Detection 153
Velocity-Based Saccade Detection 155
Eye Movement Analysis in Three Dimensions 158
Parameter Estimation 163
Fixation Grouping 166
Eye Movement Data Mirroring 167
Summary and Further Reading 167
Part III Eye Tracking Methodology 168
Experimental Design 169
Formulating a Hypothesis 169
Forms of Inquiry 171
Experiments Versus Observational Studies 171
Laboratory Versus Field Research 172
Idiographic Versus Nomothetic Research 172
Sample Population Versus Single-Case Experiment Versus Case Study 173
Within-Subjects Versus Between-Subjects 174
Example Designs 175
Measurement and Analysis 178
Summary and Further Reading 181
Suggested Empirical Guidelines 183
Evaluation Plan 184
Data Collection 184
System Identification 187
Constraints 187
User Selection 188
Evaluation Locale 188
Task Selection 189
Practical Advice 190
Considering Dynamic Stimulus 191
Summary and Further Reading 191
Case Studies 193
Head-Mounted VR Diagnostics: Visual Inspection 194
Case Study Notes 195
Head-Mounted VR Diagnostics: 3D Maze Navigation 195
Case Study Notes 196
Desktop VR Diagnostics: Driving Simulator 197
Case Study Notes 198
Desktop Diagnostics: Usability 199
Case Study Notes 207
Desktop Interaction: Gaze-Contingent Fisheye Lens 209
Case Study Notes 213
Summary and Further Reading 213
Part IV Eye Tracking Applications 214
Diversity and Types of Eye Tracking Applications 215
Summary and Further Reading 216
Neuroscience and Psychology 217
Neurophysiological Investigation of Illusory Contours 218
Attentional Neuroscience 218
Eye Movements and Brain Imaging 221
Reading 223
Scene Perception 226
Perception of Art 230
Perception of Film 231
Visual Search 232
Computational Models of Visual Search 239
Natural Tasks 243
Eye Movements in Other Information Processing Tasks 247
Summary and Further Reading 250
Industrial Engineering and Human Factors 251
Aviation 251
Driving 254
Visual Inspection 260
Summary and Further Reading 270
Marketing/Advertising 271
Copy Testing 273
Print Advertising 274
Ad Placement 277
Television Enhancements 279
Web Pages 280
Product Label Design 283
Summary and Further Reading 284
Computer Science 285
Human--Computer Interaction and Collaborative Systems 285
Classic Eye-Based Interaction 286
Cognitive Modeling 287
Universal Accessibility 289
Indirect Eye-Based Interaction 291
Attentive User Interfaces (AUIs) 292
Usability 293
Collaborative Systems 294
Gaze-Contingent Displays 295
Screen-Based Displays 296
Model-Based Graphical Displays 302
Summary and Further Reading 310
Conclusion 311
References 312
Index 329