From Genes to Animal Behavior (eBook)

From Genes to AnimalBehavior 2
Copyright 3
Preface 4
Contents 10
Contributors 13
Part I_Sexual and Kin Selection in Animals 17
Chapter 1: Female Mate Choice in Rodents 18
1.1 Introduction 18
1.2 Mate Choice by Males (Short) 19
1.3 Mate Choice by Females 19
1.4 Polyandry, Fitness, and Genetic Compatibilityin Rodents 21
1.4.1 Polyandry Versus Monoandry 21
1.4.2 Intrinsic Male Quality Versus Genetic Incompatibility 23
1.5 Influence of the t-Complex on Behavior in Mice 25
1.5.1 Organization and Impact 25
1.5.2 Natural Occurrence and Distribution of the t-Complex 26
1.5.3 What Maintains Deleterious Genes? 26
1.5.4 t-Complex and Other Female Choice Guiding Traits 27
1.5.5 Recognition of Heterozygotes 27
1.6 Influence of the Major Histocompatibility Complex on Behavior 28
1.6.1 MHC Organization in Rodents 28
1.6.2 Mouse MHC 29
1.6.3 Rat MHC 29
1.6.4 Polymorphisms and Antigen-Binding Site 30
1.6.5 Other Functions of the MHC 30
1.6.6 “Balancing Selection” Versus “Rare Allele Advantage” 31
1.6.7 Does MHC Influence Mate Choice? 32
1.7 Other Genes Known to Influence Mate Choicein Rodents 34
1.7.1 Oxytocin (Oxt) in Mice 34
1.7.2 Pkdrej in Mice: Polycystic Kidney Disease (Polycystin) and REJ (Sperm Receptor for Egg Jelly, Sea Urchin Homologue)- 36
1.7.3 Olfactory Receptors 37
References 40
Chapter 2: Extra-Pair Paternity and Sexual Selection* 49
2.1 How Does Extra-Pair Paternity Influence Sexual Selection? 49
2.1.1 Extra-Pair Paternity 50
2.1.2 Sexual Selection 51
2.2 Measurements of Sexual Selection 53
2.3 Realized and Apparent Reproductive and Mating Success 54
2.3.1 Irealized/Iapparent Ratio 54
2.3.2 Effects of Sampling Limitations on I 55
2.3.3 Effects of Random Mating on I 55
2.3.4 Opportunity for Selection in Females 59
2.3.5 Variation in the Number of Mates 60
2.4 Fitness Components 60
2.4.1 Influence of EPP on Fitness Components 61
2.4.2 Effects of Sampling Limitations on Fitness Components 65
2.4.3 Effects of Random Mating on Fitness Components 66
2.5 Bateman Gradient 66
2.5.1 Bateman Gradient in Females 67
2.5.2 Effects of Sampling Limitations on the Bateman Gradient 71
2.6 Conclusions 71
2.7 Appendix 73
References 74
Chapter 3: Male Reproductive Skew and Paternal Kin-Biased Behavior in Primates 80
3.1 Introduction 80
3.2 Male Reproductive Success 81
3.2.1 Effect of Male Dominance Rank on Reproductive Success 81
3.2.2 Priority of Access Model 83
3.2.3 Reproductive Skew Models 83
3.2.4 Summary of Male Reproductive Skew 84
3.3 Kin-Biased Behavior 84
3.3.1 Estimation Method of Pairwise Relatedness 85
3.3.2 Cooperation and Affinitive Behaviors Between Paternal Half-Siblings 85
3.3.2.1 Positive Results 85
3.3.2.2 Negative Results 86
3.3.3 Father–Offspring Interactions 87
3.3.4 Sexual Behaviors Between Paternal Relatives 87
3.3.5 Possible Mechanisms of Paternal Kin Recognition 88
3.3.5.1 Discriminating Paternal Half-Siblings 88
3.3.5.2 Discriminating Their Offspring by Males 89
3.3.5.3 Discriminating Father–Daughter Relationship 89
3.3.5.4 Phenotype Matching 89
3.3.6 Summary of Paternal Kin Recognition 90
3.4 Future Perspectives 91
References 91
Chapter 4: Social Structures and Conflict Resolution in Primitively Eusocial Polistes Wasps 95
4.1 Introduction 95
4.2 Conflict Among Foundress Associations 98
4.2.1 Foundress Associations 98
4.2.2 Dominance Hierarchy in Pleometrosis 98
4.2.2.1 Mechanisms Determining the Hierarchy 99
Subfertility Hypothesis 99
Fertility Signal in Cuticular Hydrocarbons 100
Fertility Signal in Facial Features 100
Selective Advantage of Foundress Associations 101
Reproductive Skew Models for Foundress Associations 102
Social Queuing of Foundress Groups 103
4.3 Conflict Over Sex Ratio 105
4.3.1 Adaptive Sex Ratio Variation Under a Relatedness Framework 105
4.3.2 Sex Ratio Variation Due to Factors Other Than a Relatedness Framework 106
4.3.3 Sex Ratio Variation in Eusocial Wasps 107
4.3.3.1 Relatedness Framework 107
4.3.3.2 Production Schedule 108
4.3.3.3 Worker Reproduction 109
4.4 Conflict Over Male Production 110
4.4.1 Policing Theory 110
4.4.2 Positive Evidence for Policing Theory 111
4.4.3 Negative Evidence for Policing Theory 112
4.4.4 Factors Other Than Relatedness That Regulate Worker Reproduction 113
4.5 Caste Differences Between Queens and Workers 114
4.5.1 Physiological Regulation of Caste Differences 114
4.5.1.1 Honeybees 114
4.5.1.2 Wasps 114
4.5.1.3 Bumblebees 115
4.5.2 Gene Expression 115
4.5.3 Worker Totipotency 116
4.6 Conclusions 116
References 117
PartII_Evolutionary Bases and Practical Implications of Animal Personality and Temperament 125
Chapter 5: How to Measure Animal Personality and Why Does It Matter? Integrating the Psychological and Biological Approaches 126
5.1 Introduction: What Is Animal Personality? 126
5.2 Two Approaches to Animal Personality 127
5.3 Concepts in Personality Research: A Matter of Definitions and Analytical Levels 130
5.4 Methodologies in Personality Research 131
5.4.1 How Are Candidate Personality Traits Selected, Extracted, and Analyzed? 131
5.4.2 Diagnostic Criteria: Validity, Reliability, Repeatability 135
5.5 Finding Common Ground 139
References 142
Chapter 6: Evolutionary Genetics of Personality in Nonhuman Primates 148
6.1 Introduction 148
6.2 Nonhuman Primate Personalities 149
6.2.1 Models 150
6.2.2 Building Blocks 152
6.3 Heritability 154
6.3.1 Estimating Heritability 155
6.3.2 Why Care About h2? 158
6.4 Persistence of Variation in Psychological Traits 159
6.4.1 Processes Maintaining Variation 160
6.4.2 Evolving and Resolving Explanations 161
6.5 Evolution in the Wild 163
6.5.1 Pedigree Construction 164
6.5.2 Fitness Is Not What You Think It Is Rather, It Is Exactly What You Think It Is164
6.5.3 G Matrices Gone Wild 166
6.5.4 Into the Wilds of Personality 166
6.6 Personality As a Norm of Reaction 167
6.7 Conclusion 169
References 169
Chapter 7: Toward a Basis for the Phenotypic Gambit: Advances in the Evolutionary Genetics of Animal Personality 176
7.1 Introduction 176
7.2 General Definitions of Quantitative Genetic Terms for Delineating Genetic Effects on Animal Personality Traits 178
7.3 Phenotypic Gambit 180
7.4 Two Caveats 181
7.5 First Evaluative Criterion for the Phenotypic Gambit: Consistency of Heritabilities 182
7.6 Second Evaluative Criterion for the Phenotypic Gambit: Genetic Correlations 186
7.7 Is the Phenotypic Gambit a Safe Bet? 189
References 190
Chapter 8: Applications of Personality to the Management and Conservation of Nonhuman Animals 195
8.1 Introduction 195
8.2 Personality in Nonhuman Animals 196
8.2.1 Assessing and Measuring Personality 197
8.2.2 Theoretical Treatment of Animal Personality 199
8.3 Management and Conservation of Wildlife 200
8.4 Future Directions for Research and Application 205
8.5 Conclusion 207
References 207
Chapter 9: Developing and Validating Measures of Temperament in Livestock 210
9.1 Introduction 210
9.2 Defining Temperament for Livestock Research 210
9.3 Why Measure Temperament Traits in Livestock? 212
9.3.1 The Drivers 212
9.3.2 Use Made of Temperament Data 213
9.4 Measuring Temperament Traits on Farms: Challenges and Expectations 213
9.4.1 Constraints to Measuring Behavior On-Farm 213
9.4.2 Trait Definition and Situation Specificity 214
9.4.2.1 Open-Field Test 216
9.4.2.2 Approach/Avoidance and Docility Tests 217
9.4.2.3 Crush Tests and Flight Speed 218
9.5 Measuring Temperament Traits On-Farm: Validation of Methods 220
9.5.1 State or Trait? Importance of Repeatability (Test–Retest Reliability) 220
9.5.2 Understanding What Is Recorded 221
9.5.3 Quantifying Observer Error 222
9.6 Genetics and Temperament Traits in Livestock 223
9.6.1 Principles, Progress, Constraints, and Possibilities 223
9.6.1.1 Principles 223
9.6.1.2 Progress 224
9.6.1.3 Constraints in Scoring Phenotypes 225
9.6.1.4 Interactions with Existing Economic Traits and Estimation of Economic Weights 225
9.6.2 Wider Effects of Selection on Behavior and Welfare 227
9.6.2.1 Favorable Outcomes 227
9.6.2.2 Unfavorable Outcomes 227
9.7 Future Developments 228
9.8 Conclusions 229
References 230
PartIII_Molecular Genetic Bases of Personalityand Temperament 234
Chapter 10: Genetic Variants of the Dopaminergic System in Humans and Model Organisms 235
10.1 Introduction 235
10.2 Functional Genetic Polymorphism of DAT1: The Variable-Number Tandem Repeat 236
10.3 HESR1: A Protein Binding to the 3¢-UTR of DAT 238
10.4 HESR Family Genes: Candidate Regulating Factors for DAT Expression 238
10.5 Behavioral and Neurochemical Aspects of the Hesr Family 239
10.6 Conclusions 241
References 242
Chapter 11: Molecular Behavioral Research in Great Apes 246
11.1 Introduction 246
11.2 Great Apes in Japan 247
11.3 Molecular Genetic Studies of Human Personality 249
11.4 Comparison of Allele Distribution and Its Effect Among Species 250
11.5 Genetic Basis of Behavior in Nonhuman Primates 251
11.6 How to Evaluate Personality in Apes 252
11.7 Species Differences in the Personalities of Apes 253
11.8 General Discussion and the Way Forward 253
References 256
Chapter 12: “Genetics and the Social Behavior of the Dog” Revisited: Searching for Genes Relating to Personality in Dogs 261
12.1 New Concepts in Dog Research 261
12.1.1 Ethology: Human and Dog Behavioral Parallels 262
12.1.2 Domestication: Evolutionary Process 262
12.1.3 Genetics: Dog Genome 263
12.2 In the Footsteps of Giants 264
12.3 Dogs in Their Natural Environment 265
12.3.1 Practicalities of Dog Research 265
12.3.2 Niche of Dogs in Western Cultures 266
12.3.3 Breeds As Genetically Isolated Populations 266
12.4 Personality Studies in Dogs 267
12.4.1 Concept 267
12.4.2 Methods in Personality Studies 268
12.5 Genetic Association Studies in Dogs 269
12.5.1 What Genes and Why 269
12.5.2 Behavioral Associations with the DRD4 Gene 270
12.5.2.1 Looking for a “Good” Phenotype: Activity/Impulsivity Trait 271
12.5.2.2 Looking for a Polymorphism: DRD4 Exon 3 in Dogs 271
12.5.2.3 Other Behavioral Associations with Genes 273
12.5.3 Molecular Functional Analysis of DRD4 Intron 2 274
12.6 Conclusions 275
References 276
Chapter 13: Personality-Associated Genetic Variation in Birds and Its Possible Significance for Avian Evolution, Conservation, 281
13.1 Introduction 281
13.1.1 Birds As Study Subjects in Behavioral Research 281
13.1.2 Scientific Study of Animal Behavioral Syndromes or Personalities 282
13.1.3 Existence and Significance of Bird Personality 282
13.2 Avian DRD4 Polymorphisms and Novelty-Seeking Variation 283
13.2.1 Personality Trait Quantification 283
13.2.2 Candidate Gene Selection 284
13.2.3 Sequencing the Great Tit DRD4 Gene 285
13.2.4 Great Tit DRD4 Gene Polymorphisms 286
13.2.5 Detection and Interpretation of DNA Sequence Polymorphisms 286
13.2.6 DRD4 SNP830 Allele Frequencies in the EEB-Selected Lines 287
13.2.7 DRD4 SNP830 Genotypes and EEB Phenotypes Among Unselected Birds 288
13.2.8 Search for Additional DRD4 Polymorphisms 288
13.2.9 DRD4 ID15 Polymorphism and EEB 289
13.2.10 Concluding Comments and Supporting Research 290
13.3 Future Directions in Avian Personality Genetics 291
13.3.1 Avian Personality Genetics: Beyond Genotype–Phenotype Association Studies 291
13.3.2 Alternative Avian Species for Personality Genetics Research 292
13.3.3 Applications of Bird Personality Genetics Research 293
13.4 Conclusion 295
References 296
PartIV_Evolution of Coloration and Visual OpsinGenes in Vertebrates 301
Chapter 14: Evolutionary Genetics of Coloration in Primates and Other Vertebrates 302
14.1 Introduction 302
14.1.1 Physicochemical Basis of Vertebrate Colours 303
14.1.2 Temporal Variation in Coloration 303
14.1.3 Sexually Dimorphic Coloration (Sexual Dichromatism) 304
14.2 Genetic Basis of Vertebrate Colours 304
14.2.1 Evolutionary Genetics of Colour Variation Within Species 304
14.2.2 Evolutionary Genetics of Colour Variation Among Species 307
14.3 Primate Coloration 308
14.3.1 Evolutionary Genetics of Primate Coloration 308
14.3.2 MC1R, ASIP, and Colour Variation in Lion Tamarins 310
14.4 Conclusions and Prospects 312
References 312
Chapter 15: Speciation of Cichlid Fishes by Sensory Drive 316
15.1 Why African Cichlid Fishes? 316
15.2 Mate Choice by Color Vision 318
15.3 Opsins in African Cichlid Fish 320
15.4 Speciation by Sensory Drive 323
15.5 Reproductive Isolation by Other Sensors 329
15.6 Conclusions 330
References 330
Chapter 16: Evolutionary Diversification of Visual Opsin Genes in Fish and Primates 334
16.1 Introduction 334
16.2 Vertebrate Visual Opsins 336
16.2.1 Visual Cells and Visual Pigments 336
16.2.2 Color Vision and Visual Opsins 337
16.2.3 Visual Opsin Repertoires of Vertebrates 337
16.3 Wide Variety of Visual Opsins in Fish 338
16.3.1 Gene Duplications and Spectral Differentiation 338
16.3.2 Differential Expression of Visual Opsin Subtypes 339
16.3.3 Regulatory Mechanism of Differential Expression of Subtype Opsin Genes 341
16.4 Trichromatic Color Vision in Primates 342
16.4.1 Prerequisites for Trichromatic Color Vision 342
16.4.2 What Are the Advantages of Having Trichromatic Vision? 344
16.4.3 Behavioral Observation for Wild Populations of New World Monkeys 347
16.4.4 Future Directions of the Study of Primate Color Vision 348
16.5 Evolutionary Implications to Human Color Vision Variations 349
16.6 Conclusion 350
References 350
PartV_Chemical and Neural Probes for StudyingSocial Behaviors 355
Chapter 17: Effect of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals on the Development of Macaque Socialization 356
17.1 Environment, Pollution, and Disease: Problems of Modern Society 356
17.2 Gestational and Lactational Exposure to 2,3,7,8-TCDD Affects Social Behaviors of Rhesus Infants 357
17.3 Development of Mother–Infant Interactions in Cynomolgus Monkeys Exposed to BPA 361
17.4 Correlation Between Plasma Concentration of PCBs in Cynomolgus Mothers and Behavioral Tendencies of Their Offspring 364
17.5 How We Assessed Behaviors Affected by EDCs and Recommendations for Further Studies 366
References 368
Chapter 18: Functional Association Between the Brain and Physiological Responses Accompanying Negative and Positive Emotions a 370
18.1 Introduction 370
18.2 Brain and Physiological Responses in Negative Emotions 371
18.2.1 Emotional Responses and Emotion Regulation 371
18.2.1.1 Automatic Response of the Amygdala and Its Regulation 371
18.2.1.2 Voluntary Regulation of Emotions 373
18.2.2 Acute Stress and Controllability 376
18.3 Brain and Physiological Responses in Positive Emotions 378
18.4 Genetic Modulations of Negative and Positive Emotional Responses 380
18.4.1 Polymorphism of the Serotonin Transporter Gene 381
18.4.1.1 Acute Stress and Serotonin Transporter Gene Polymorphism 381
18.4.1.2 Positive Emotions and Serotonin Transporter Gene Polymorphism 382
18.4.2 Polymorphism of the m-Opioid Receptor Gene 384
18.5 Conclusion and Future Directions 385
References 387
Chapter 19: Molecular Brain Imaging of Personality Traits in Nonhuman Primates: A Study of the Common Marmoset 391
19.1 PET Imaging as a Tool for Mapping Brain Molecules Underlying Behavior 391
19.1.1 Human Studies 391
19.1.2 Nonhuman Primate Studies 393
19.2 PET Imaging of Common Marmosets 394
19.2.1 Serotonin Transporters 396
19.2.2 Dopamine Transporters 397
19.2.3 Features of Molecular Brain Mapping Underlying Personality Traits 398
19.3 Conclusion and Future Directions 401
References 402
Index 409