Recent Developments in Management of Plant Diseases (eBook)

Ulrich Gisi is a professor of plant pathology and soil ecology at the University of Basel (Switzerland) and a long experienced scientist and expert in agrochemical industry (Syngenta) for fungicide mode of action, resistance and population biology.Ilan Chet is a professor of microbiology. He was dean V.P. at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, and President of the Weizman Institute. Professor Chet is recipient of the Wolf, Israel, Rothschild, EMT and Max Planck prizes.Maria Lodovica Gullino is a professor of plant pathology at the University of Torino and President of the International Society for Plant Pathology. She has long term experience in plant disease management.

Gisi_FM.pdf 1
Gisi_Ch01.pdf 15
Chapter 1 16
The Challenges of Chemical Control of Plant Diseases 16
1.1 The Need for Chemical Control of Plant Pathogens 17
1.2 Options for the Control of Plant Pathogens 18
1.3 The Challenges of Chemical Discovery 20
Biologically Efficient 21
User Friendly 21
Environmentally Sound 21
Economically Viable 21
1.4 The Successes of Industry 22
1.5 The Importance of Diversity and Sustainability of Chemical Fungicides 25
1.6 The Threat of Fungicide Resistance and Its Management 26
1.7 The Impact of Future Legislation 28
1.8 Conclusions 29
Gisi_Ch02.pdf 31
Chapter 2 31
Novel Tools to Identify the Mode of Action of Fungicides as Exemplified with Fluopicolide 31
2.1 Introduction 32
2.2 Results 35
2.3 Discussion 41
2.4 Materials and Methods 43
2.4.1 Culture Conditions and Cell Treatment 43
2.4.2 Antibodies 44
2.4.2.1 Primary Antibodies 44
2.4.2.2 Secondary Antibodies 44
2.4.3 Immunofluorescence Microscopy of Tubulins, Actin and Spectrin 44
2.4.4 Protein Extraction for Western-Blot 45
2.4.5 Electrophoresis and Immunoblotting 45
2.4.6 Microarray Analysis 45
References 46
Gisi_Ch03.pdf 49
Chapter 3 49
QoI Fungicide Resistance: Current Status and the Problems Associated with DNA-Based Monitoring 49
3.1 QoI Fungicides and Resistance Development in Fungal Pathogens 50
3.2 Mechanisms of QoI Resistance 50
3.3 Molecular Methods for Identifying QoI Resistance and Drawbacks 50
3.4 Instability of QoI Resistance 52
3.5 Involvement of AOX in QoI Resistance 53
3.6 New QoI Fungicides 54
3.7 Conclusions 54
References 55
Gisi_Ch04.pdf 58
Chapter 4 58
Regulatory Aspects in Chemical Control of Fungal Diseases: Impact on Efficient Plant Production 58
4.1 Introduction 59
4.2 Chemical Control of Plant Diseases and Public Opinion 59
4.3 Historical Aspects 60
4.4 Facing the Future 61
4.4.1 Regulations Concerning the Registration and Placing on the Market of Fungicides 61
4.4.1.1 Regulations Concerning the Evaluation of New Active Substances 62
4.4.1.2 Regulations Concerning Substances Already in Use 62
4.4.1.3 New Legal Regulations and Their Possible Consequences 63
4.4.2 Regulations Concerning the Use and Application of Fungicides 64
4.4.3 Regulations Concerning the Prevention of Spread of Dangerous/Invasive Pathogens 64
4.4.4 Nonofficial Regulations on the Basis of Private Contracts 65
4.5 Summary 66
References 66
Gisi_Ch05.pdf 67
Chapter 5 68
The Roles of Cyclic Lipopeptides in the Biocontrol Activity of Bacillus subtilis 68
5.1 Introduction 68
5.2 Bacillus CLPs: A Variety of Structures 69
5.3 Bacillus CLPs: A Variety of Biocontrol-Related Activities 70
5.3.1 Involvement in Root Colonization 70
5.3.2 Involvement in Direct Antagonism 71
5.3.3 Involvement in Plant Systemic Resistance Elicitation 72
5.3.3.1 Defense-Related Events Stimulated by CLPs in Plants 73
5.3.3.2 Relationship Between CLP Type and Plant Defense Inducing Activity 74
5.3.4. Ecological Compatibility of CLP Producers 74
5.4 Other Bacillus Antibiotics Involved in Biological Control 75
5.5 Conclusion 75
References 76
Gisi_Ch06.pdf 79
Chapter 6 79
Biocontrol of Plant Pathogens and Plant Growth Promotion by Bacillus 79
6.1 Diversity 79
6.2 Biogeography 81
6.3 Activity 82
6.4 Conclusions 84
References 85
Gisi_Ch07.pdf 88
Chapter 7 88
Importance of Multitrophic Interactions for Successful Biocontrol of Plant Parasitic Nematodes with Paecilomyces lilacinus 88
7.1 Introduction 89
7.2 Biocontrol Efficacy 90
7.2.1 Dose Response and Optimized Efficacy 90
7.2.2 Field Efficacy 91
7.3 Factors Affecting Persistence and Biocontrol Efficacy 91
7.3.1 Temperature and Substrate Type 92
7.3.2 Host Plant Species and Target Nematode 92
7.3.3 Persistence Under Field Conditions 93
7.4 Importance of Rhizosphere Competence for Biocontrol 93
7.4.1 Interaction Between Inoculum Density and Antagonist Dose 93
7.4.2 Interaction with Root-Knot Nematodes 94
7.4.3 Interaction with Other Antagonists 95
7.5 Concluding Remarks 96
References 96
Gisi_Ch08.pdf 100
Chapter 8 100
Interactions Between Clonostachys rosea f. catenulata, Fusarium oxysporum and Cucumber Roots Leading to Biological 100
8.1 Introduction 101
8.2 Mycoparasitic Behavior of C. rosea Against Fusarium 102
8.2.1 Cell-Wall Degrading Enzyme Production 103
8.3 Biological Control Activity and Survival of C. rosea 106
8.3.1 Colonization of Cucumber Plants by C. rosea 108
8.3.2 Survival of F. oxysporum on Cucumber Roots in the Presence of C. rosea 110
8.4 Conclusions 111
References 111
Gisi_Ch09.pdf 114
Chapter 9 114
Screening of Biocontrol Agents for Control of Foliar Diseases 114
9.1 Introduction 114
9.2 Selection Criteria for Antagonists 115
9.2.1 Epidemics of Foliar Diseases and Mechanisms of Antagonists 115
9.2.2 Ecological Competence for Phyllosphere Colonization 116
9.2.3 Economical Features 119
9.3 A Case of a Screening Program: Development of a Biocontrol Agent for Apple Scab Control 119
9.3.1 Building-Up a Collection of Candidate Antagonists: Sampling and Isolation 120
9.3.2 Pre-screening: Considering Mass Production, Ecological Competence and Safety 120
9.3.3 Antagonistic Efficacy: Screening on Seedlings 121
9.3.4 Suitability at Industrial Scales: Production and Formulation 123
9.3.5 Orchard Experiments: Towards Practical Use 123
9.4 Conclusions 124
References 125
Gisi_Ch10.pdf 127
Chapter 10 127
Quorum Sensing as a Target for Novel Biocontrol Strategies Directed at Pectobacterium 127
10.1 Introduction 128
10.2 QS-Regulated Functions in Pectobacterium spp. 129
10.3 An Overview of Quorum Quenching Strategies 130
10.4 Validity of the Biocontrol Approach 132
10.5 The Biostimulant Approach: An Example of Innovative Ecological Engineering 133
References 134
Gisi_Ch11.pdf 138
Chapter 11 138
The Status of Biological Control of Plant Diseases in Soilless Cultivation 138
11.1 Introduction 138
11.2 Microbial Populations in Closed Soilless Systems 139
11.3 Disease-Suppressive Substrate 142
11.3.1 Biotic Factors in Substrate 142
11.3.2 Recirculation of Nutrient Solution 143
11.3.3 Disinfestation of Recirculated Nutrient Solution 144
11.4 Biological Control Agents 145
11.4.1 Advantages of Soilless Systems for BCAs 145
11.4.2 Biocontrol with Biosurfactants 146
11.4.3 Root Colonization as Key Factor for Biocontrol 146
11.4.4 Combined Applications of BCAs with Stimulatory Compounds 146
11.4.5 Hurdles 147
11.5 Conclusions 148
References 149
Gisi_Ch12.pdf 152
Chapter 12 152
REBECA – EU-Policy Support Action to Review Regulation of Biological Control Agents 152
12.1 Significance of Biological Control 152
12.2 Regulation of Biological Control Agents 154
12.3 History of Regulation of Plant Protection Products 155
12.4 Stakeholders and Conflicting Interests 157
12.5 Discrepancy Between Political Agenda and Support for Biocontrol Concepts 159
12.6 Proposal to Simplify Registration of Microbial Biological Control Agents 160
12.6.1 Information Check List for Pre-submission Meetings 160
12.6.2 Comments on Data Requirements 161
12.6.3 Human Infectivity 162
12.7 General Improvement of Regulatory System 163
12.8 Conclusion 164
References 165
Gisi_Ch13.pdf 167
Chapter 13 167
Fungal Disease Management in Organic Apple Orchards: Epidemiological Aspects and Management Approaches 167
13.1 Introduction 168
13.2 Justifying Asexual Survival Features of Apple Scab and Its Control in Organic Apple Orchards 169
13.3 Characteristics of Scab Epidemics in Summer 172
13.4 Management Options for Delaying Scab Epidemics 175
13.5 Studies for Copper Replacement 176
13.6 Newly Developed Scab Management Decision Support System in Organic Apple Production 177
13.7 Conclusions and Future Trends 179
References 179
Gisi_Ch14.pdf 182
Chapter 14 183
Exploitation of Natural Compounds in Eco-Friendly Management of Plant Pests 183
14.1 Introduction 183
14.2 Synthetic Pesticides and Control of Plant Pests 184
14.3 Botanical Pesticides in Agricultural Pest Management 185
14.3.1 Botanical Pesticides in Current Use 185
14.3.2 Higher Plant Products as Synergists or Activators of Pesticides 189
14.3.3 Essential Oils 190
14.3.4 Efficacy of Botanical Pesticides as Semiochemicals Against Agricultural Pests 192
14.3.4.1 Insect Growth Regulators 192
14.3.4.2 Antifeedants and Attractants 192
14.3.4.3 Chemosterilants 193
14.3.5 Higher Plant Products as Inhibitors of Aflatoxin Secretions 193
14.4 Current Status and Future Prospects 194
References 196
Gisi_Ch15.pdf 201
Chapter 15 201
Regulation and Functional Analysis of Bioprotective Metabolite Genes from the Grass Symbiont Epichloe festucae 201
15.1 Introduction 202
15.2 Peramine 203
15.2.1 Molecular Cloning and Genetic Analysis of perA, a Peramine Synthetase 203
15.2.2 Taxonomic Distribution of perA 204
15.3 Indole Diterpenes 207
15.3.1 Molecular Cloning and Genetic Analysis of Lolitrem (ltm) Biosynthetic Genes 207
15.3.2 Regulation of ltm Gene Expression 209
15.3.3 Taxonomic Distribution of ltm Genes 210
15.4 Ergot Alkaloids 211
15.4.1 Molecular Cloning and Genetic Analysis of Ergot Alkaloid (eas) Biosynthetic Genes 211
15.4.2 Bioprotection from Ergot Alkaloids 212
15.5 Future Prospects 213
References 213
Gisi_Ch16.pdf 216
Chapter 16 217
IPM for Soilborne Disease Management for Vegetable and Strawberry Crops in SE USA 217
16.1 Background 218
16.2 Multi-state and Interdisciplinary Response 219
16.3 Implementation of a Plan of Action 219
16.3.1 Determine the Risk-Aversion and Biological Basis for Fumigation 220
16.3.2 Parallel Development and Implementation of Tactics to Replace MeBr 220
16.3.2.1 Tactic Substitution 222
16.3.2.2 Tactic Diversification 224
16.3.2.3 Tactic Development 224
16.4 Extension 225
16.5 Summary 225
References 226
Gisi_Ch17.pdf 228
Chapter 17 228
Integrated Control of Soilborne Pathogens of Wheat 228
17.1 Introduction 229
17.2 The Pathogens 230
17.2.1 Fusarium Crown Rot 230
17.2.2 Take-All 231
17.2.3 Rhizoctonia Bare Patch and Root Rot 231
17.2.4 Pythium Root Rot 232
17.3 Molecular Detection and Quantification of Soilborne Pathogens 232
17.4 Integrated Control Methods 234
17.4.1 Genetic Resistance or Tolerance 234
17.4.2 Chemical Control 234
17.4.3 Crop Rotation 234
17.4.4 Tillage 235
17.4.5 Greenbridge Management 236
17.4.6 Row Spacing and Precision Placement 236
17.4.7 Fallow 237
17.4.8 Residue Management 237
17.4.9 Altering Planting Date 238
17.4.10 Seed Quality 238
17.4.11 Plant Nutrition 239
17.4.12 Suppressive Soils 239
17.4.13 Biological Control 240
17.5 Conclusions 240
References 241
Gisi_Ch18.pdf 245
Chapter 18 245
Challenges in Controlling Verticillium Wilt by the Use of Nonchemical Methods 245
18.1 Introduction 245
18.2 Organic Amendments 246
18.2.1 Disease Reductions in the Field 246
18.2.2 Mechanisms of Action by Which High Nitrogen Containing Amendments Reduce Pathogen Populations 247
18.2.3 Mechanism of Action of Materials Containing Volatile Fatty Acids 248
18.2.4 Formulation for Site Specific Activity 249
18.2.5 Crop Rotation and Green Manures 250
18.2.6 Attributes of Successful Rotation Crops 251
18.2.7 Mode of Action 253
18.2.8 Successes and Frustrations 255
18.2.9 Grafted Plants 255
18.2.10 Limitations of Adoption of Grafted Plants 256
18.2.11 Physiological Disorders Caused by Grafting Adoption 257
18.2.12 Potential for Future 258
References 258
Gisi_Ch19.pdf 263
Chapter 19 263
Soil Solarization – 30 Years On: What Lessons Have Been Learned? 263
19.1 Introduction 263
19.2 Exploring Soil Solarization 264
19.3 Some Major Developments in SH Study 265
19.3.1 Mechanisms of Pathogen and Disease Control 265
19.3.2 Increased Growth Response of Plants in Solarized Soils 268
19.3.3 Simulation and Modeling 269
19.3.4 Integrated Pest Management 270
19.4 Improving Solarization 270
19.4.1 Technological Improvements 271
19.4.2 Double Tarps 271
19.4.3 Improved Films 272
19.4.4 Sprayable Films 272
19.5 Special Uses or Modification of Solar Heating 273
19.5.1 Solarization Inside the Greenhouse 273
19.5.2 Structural Solarization 273
19.5.3 Solar Disinfection of Infested Objects 274
19.5.4 Solar Collectors 274
19.6 Solarization and the Methyl Bromide Crisis 274
19.7 Limitations of Soil Solarization 275
19.8 Lessons Which Can and Should Be Learned 275
19.9 Concluding Remarks 276
References 277
Gisi_Ch20.pdf 282
Chapter 20 282
Back to the Future: Total System Management (Organic, Sustainable) 282
20.1 Introduction 283
20.2 Migratory Approach 283
20.3 Farm-Based Approach 284
20.4 Single Tactic Approach 285
20.5 Integrated Pest Management 285
20.6 Total System Management 286
20.7 Summary 287
References 287
Chapter 21 1
Global Phaseout of Methyl Bromide Under the Montreal Protocol: Implications for Bioprotection, Biosecurity and the Ozone Lay 1
21.1 Introduction 1
21.2 Methyl Bromide Regulation under the Montreal Protocol Stimulates New Technologies 1
21.3 Implications of Methyl Bromide PhaseOut on Bioprotection 1
21.3.1 Validation of Successful Alternatives to Methyl Bromide 1
21.3.2 The Increased Growth Response After Soil Disinfestation 1
21.4 Implications of Methyl bromide PhaseOut on Biosecurity 1
21.5 Implications of Methyl Bromide PhaseOut on the Ozone Layer 1
21.6 Conclusions 1
References 1
Gisi_Ch22.pdf 307
Chapter 22 307
Accelerated Degradation of Soil Fumigants: Occurrence and Agricultural Consequences 307
22.1 Introduction 308
22.2 Degradation and Dissipation of Fumigants in Soil 309
22.2.1 Generation and Dissipation of the Active Ingredient in Soil 309
22.2.2 MITC 310
22.2.3 1, 3-D 311
22.2.4 Chloropicrin (CP) 311
22.3 Development of Accelerated Degradation in Soil 312
22.3.1 MITC 312
22.3.2 1, 3-D 313
22.3.3 Chloropicrin (CP) 313
22.4 Accelerated Degradation Under Field Conditions 313
22.5 Mechanisms of Accelerated Degradation and the Conditions for Its Development 314
22.5.1 Microorganisms and Microbial Activity 314
22.5.1.1 Cross Accelerated Degradation 315
22.5.1.2 Stability of AD 316
22.5.2 Soil Characteristic and Environmental Conditions 317
22.5.2.1 Soil Temperature and Water Content 317
22.5.2.2 Organic Material 317
22.6 Management of Accelerated Degradation 318
22.6.1 Soil Disinfestation for AD Management 319
22.6.2 Combinations of Fumigants with Other Methods of AD Management 319
22.7 Conclusions and Future Prospects 319
References 321
Gisi_Ch23.pdf 325
Chapter 23 325
Recent Developments in Disease Management 325
23.1 Introduction 325
23.2 Methyl Bromide 327
23.3 Methyl Iodide (Iodomethane) 331
23.4 1,3-Dichloropropene 332
23.5 Methyl Isothiocyanate (MITC) 333
23.6 Chloropicrin 334
23.7 Dimethyl Disulfide 335
23.8 Sodium Tetrathiocarbonate 336
23.9 Concluding Remarks 336
References 338
Gisi_Ch24.pdf 342
Chapter 24 343
Worldwide Monitoring Systems: The Need for Public and Private Collaboration 343
24.1 Monitoring Invasive Pathogens 344
24.2 Potential Benefits of Data Sharing 344
24.3 The Proposed Industry Pipe 345
24.4 Towards a Global Pest Information Platform 348
References 349
Gisi_Ch25.pdf 350
Chapter 25 350
Identification of New Sources of Resistance to Soybean Rust 350
25.1 Introduction 350
25.1.1 Discovery of Soybean Rust in the World 350
25.1.2 Distribution of Soybean Rust in the United States 351
25.1.3 Causal Organisms and Its General Biology 351
25.1.4 Disease Symptoms and Impacts 353
25.1.5 Disease Management 355
25.2 Reported Soybean Rust Resistance Genes 355
25.2.1 Identification of Soybean Rust Resistance Genes 355
25.2.2 Evidences of Known Rpp Genes Were Defeated 357
25.3 Evaluation and Identification of New Sources for Resistance to Soybean Rust 357
25.3.1 Examples of Germplasm Evaluation 357
25.3.2 Evaluation of Resistant Lines Identified from Foreign Countries with US Domestic Isolates 359
25.3.3 Evaluation of Other Soybean Disease Resistant Lines 360
25.3.4 Evaluation of Glycine Soja and Perennial Glycines 360
25.3.5 Evaluation of Other Hosts for Resistance to Soybean Rust 361
References 362
Chapter 21 290
Global Phaseout of Methyl Bromide Under the Montreal Protocol: Implications for Bioprotection, Biosecurity and the Ozone Lay 290
21.1 Introduction 291
21.2 Methyl Bromide Regulation under the Montreal Protocol Stimulates New Technologies 292
21.3 Implications of Methyl Bromide PhaseOut on Bioprotection 294
21.3.1 Validation of Successful Alternatives to Methyl Bromide 294
21.3.2 The Increased Growth Response After Soil Disinfestation 296
21.4 Implications of Methyl bromide PhaseOut on Biosecurity 299
21.5 Implications of Methyl Bromide PhaseOut on the Ozone Layer 300
21.6 Conclusions 303
References 305