Stone in Architecture (eBook)

Preface 4
Contents 7
Contributors 8
1 Natural Stones in Architecture: Introduction 9
1.1 Introduction 9
1.2 Stone Provenance and Provinces 10
1.3 Natural Stone Structures 11
2 Building Stones 19
2.1 Building Stones as a Natural Resource 19
2.2 The Natural Building Stone Market 21
2.3 Architects Point of View 27
2.4 Confusion Caused by Commercial Names 29
2.5 Geology of Building Stones Terminology 33
2.6 Rock-Forming Minerals 34
2.6.1 Mineral Chemistry and Classification 34
2.6.2 Mineral Physics 36
2.7 Definition and Origin of Rocks 39
2.8 Rock Fabrics 41
2.8.1 Fabric Parameters 46
2.8.2 Shape-Preferred Orientations 48
2.8.3 Fracture Fabrics 48
2.9 Igneous Rocks 51
2.9.1 Plutonic Igneous Rocks 55
2.9.2 Volcanic and Subvolcanic Igneous Rocks 59
2.9.3 Pyroclastic Igneous Rocks 67
2.10 Metamorphic Rocks 69
2.11 Sedimentary Rocks 83
2.11.1 Detrital Sedimentary Rocks 84
2.11.1.1 Consolidated Detrital Sedimentary Rocks 86
2.11.2 Chemically or Biologically Precipitated Sedimentary Rocks 91
References 100
3 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Rocks 104
3.1 Density, Mean Atomic Weight and Cation Packing Index 104
3.2 Porosity 114
3.3 Water Transport and Retention Properties 127
3.3.1 Capillary Water Absorption 129
3.3.2 Water Absorption by Total Immersion 133
3.3.3 Drying Characteristics 141
3.3.4 Moisture Adsorption 143
3.3.5 Water Vapor Diffusion 146
3.4 Thermal Properties 148
3.4.1 Thermal Conductivity 148
3.4.2 Thermal Expansion 153
3.4.2.1 Deformation of Stone Slabs 164
3.4.2.2 Thermal Behavior at Higher Temperatures 165
3.5 Hygric/Hydric Properties 168
3.6 Strength Properties 174
3.6.1 Compressive Strength 175
3.6.2 Tensile Strength 182
3.6.3 Flexural Strength 192
3.6.4 Hardness and Abrasion Resistance 196
3.6.5 Breaking Load at the Dowel Hole 202
3.7 Ultrasonic Wave Velocities and Youngs Modulus 207
3.7.1 Ultrasound Velocity and Lithology 209
3.7.2 Ultrasound Velocity -- Effect of Porosity and Fluids 212
3.7.3 Ultrasonic Velocity and Anisotropy 213
3.7.4 Velocity and Degree of Weathering 220
References 222
4 Weathering and Deterioration 233
4.1 Introduction 233
4.2 Deterioration by Mechanical Processes 235
4.2.1 Thermal Cycling 236
4.2.2 Hygric and Hydric Swelling 241
4.2.3 Crystal Growth 246
4.2.4 Combination of Factors 254
4.2.4.1 Crystallization of Ice 256
4.2.4.2 Ice Crystallization in Combination with Clays or Salts 258
4.2.4.3 Salts and Moisture Changes 260
4.2.4.4 Further Examples 262
4.3 Deterioration by Chemical Processes 263
4.3.1 Mineral Dissolution Reactions 263
4.3.2 Surface Recession Rates on Calcareous Stone 268
4.4 Action of Salts 270
4.4.1 Sources of Salts in Building Materials 272
4.4.2 Common Salts in Building Stones 276
4.4.3 Interaction of Salts with the Environment 282
4.4.3.1 Single Salts 282
4.4.3.2 Salt Mixtures 288
4.4.3.3 Modeling of Crystallization Pathway in Salt Mixtures 294
4.5 Biodeterioration of Stone 297
4.5.1 Organisms Involved in Biodeterioration 298
4.5.1.1 Bacteria 298
4.5.1.2 Fungi 301
4.5.1.3 Lichens 303
4.5.2 Processes of Biodeterioration and Biodegradation 304
4.5.2.1 Surface Alteration Phenomena and Biogenic Layers 304
4.5.2.2 Chemical and Mechanical Alterations 306
4.6 Final Remarks 308
References 310
5 Environment and Architectural Stone 323
5.1 Nature of Environmental Exposure 323
5.1.1 Heritage Climates 325
5.1.1.1 Key Climate Parameters 326
5.1.1.2 Types of Climate 327
5.1.2 Pollutants 330
5.1.2.1 Primary Pollutant History 330
5.1.2.2 Development of Photochemical Smog 331
5.1.2.3 Carbon Compounds as Air Pollutants 331
5.1.2.4 Nitrogen Compounds as Air Pollutants 333
5.1.2.5 Sulfur Compounds as Air Pollutants 334
5.1.2.6 Halogens as Air Pollutants 335
5.1.2.7 Oxidants in the Air Pollutants 335
5.1.2.8 Aerosols 335
5.2 Wind Driven Processes and Architectural Stone 336
5.3 Air Pollution and Architectural Stone 337
5.3.1 Sulfur Dioxide and Acid Rain 338
5.3.1.1 Coal smoke Laden Atmospheres 338
5.3.1.2 Development of Black Crust 339
5.3.2 Nitrogen Oxides Nitric Acid and Ozone 341
5.3.3 Particulate Material and Crusts 342
5.4 Long Term Change 344
5.4.1 Historic Changes in Pressures on Architectural Stone 344
5.4.2 Future Climate Impacts 345
5.4.3 Future Changes in Air Pollution 347
5.4.4 Future Environment and Architectural Stone 349
References 350
6 Characterisation of Stone Deterioration on Buildings 353
6.1 Introduction 353
6.2 Classification of Weathering Forms 358
6.3 Condition Survey: Mapping of Weathering Forms 369
6.4 Material Testing, Scientific Investigations 375
6.4.1 General Remarks 375
6.4.2 On-Site Evaluation Tests (Non-destructive and Less-Destructive) 376
6.4.2.1 Moisture Content 378
6.4.2.2 Analysis of Efflorescing Salts 378
6.4.2.3 Drilling Resistance 379
6.4.2.4 Schmidt Hammer and Duroscope 382
6.4.2.5 Ultrasonic Wave Measurements, Other Geophysical Methods 385
6.4.2.6 Capillary Water Uptake: Karsten Tube Measurements 393
6.4.2.7 Color Measurements 396
6.4.3 Laboratory Investigations 398
6.4.4 Biological Methods 404
6.4.4.1 Phenomenological Analysis and Microscopy 404
6.4.4.2 Classical Microbiological Methods 406
6.4.4.3 State of the Art Molecular Techniques 406
6.5 Synthesis: Discussion of Results, Recommendations for Restoration 409
References 410
7 Stone Conservation 417
7.1 Introduction 417
7.2 Historic and Actual Stone Conservation Compounds 419
7.2.1 Limewater, Lime Wash and Barita Water 422
7.2.2 Linseed Oil 424
7.2.3 Fluosilicates 425
7.2.4 Waterglass 426
7.2.5 Silica Sols 428
7.2.6 Acrylates 429
7.2.7 Polyesterand Alkyd Resins 432
7.2.8 Epoxy Resins 434
7.2.9 Silicate Esters 436
7.2.10 Alkyl-triethoxysilane 439
7.3 Mapping of conservation interventions as a Planning Tool 444
7.4 Cleaning Methods 448
7.4.1 Water Based Cleaning Techniques 451
7.4.2 Cleaning Poultices 454
7.4.3 Particle Jet and Micro Particle Jet 456
7.4.4 Laser Cleaning 461
7.5 Desalination of Masonry 468
7.6 Consolidation of Stone 472
1. Visual Appearance 483
2. Capillarity (Water Uptake Coefficient W and Water Penetration Coefficient B) 483
3. Penetration Depth 483
4. Hydric Dilatation 484
5. Number of Water Vapor Diffusion Resistance 484
6. Biaxial Flexural Strength ( BFS ) 484
7. Modulus of Elasticity (E) 485
7.7 Repair and Joint Mortar 487
7.7.1 Aggregates and Pigments 489
7.7.2 Water 490
7.7.3 Gypsum 491
7.7.4 Lime and Cement 491
7.7.5 Historic and Modern Additives 495
7.7.6 Compressive strength ßcs of Lime and Cement Mortars 497
7.7.7 Mortars Bound with Silica Gel 498
7.7.8 Assessment Criteria for Compatibility of Repair and Joint Mortars and Stone 500
7.7.9 Repair with Natural Stone 504
7.8 Paints on Stone 505
7.8.1 Binding Materials of Paints 509
7.8.2 Painting Techniques 511
7.8.3 Moisture transport properties of Paint Layers 513
7.8.4 Aspects of Conservation 515
7.9 Hydrophobic Treatment 516
7.9.1 Effectiveness of Hydrophobic Agents 518
7.9.2 Practical Advises 522
7.9.3 Durability of Hydrophobic Treatment 526
7.9.4 General Aspects About Hydrophobation 529
7.10 Acrylic Resin Full Impregnation 529
7.11 Antimicrobial treatment and Preventive Measures 533
7.11.1 Climate, Humidity and Exposure 534
7.11.2 Cleaning and Biocidal Treatments 534
7.11.3 Bioremediation 538
7.12 Concluding Remarks 539
References 541
Subject Index 551