Mycotoxins in Food, Feed and Bioweapons (eBook)

161309_1_En_FM1_OnlinePDF 1
161309_1_En_1_Part_OnlinePDF 17
Chapter : 17
161309_1_En_1_Chapter_OnlinePDF 18
Chapter 1: Artificial Systems for Molecular Recognition of Mycotoxins 18
Introduction 18
Molecularly Imprinted Polymers 19
Molecular Imprinted Solid-Phase Extraction 20
Imprinted Materials for Mycotoxin Analysis 22
Ochratoxin AOchratoxin A 23
ZearalenoneZearalenone 25
MoniliforminMoniliformin 27
DeoxynivalenolDeoxynivalenol 28
Combinatorial Peptides 28
Combinatorial PeptidesCombinatorial peptides for Mycotoxins 29
AflatoxinsAflatoxins 29
Ochratoxin AOchratoxin A 31
Conclusions 32
References 33
161309_1_En_2_Chapter_OnlinePDF 36
Chapter Chapter 2: Molecular Mechanism of Detection of Aflatoxins and Other Mycotoxins 36
Introduction 36
Detection of Aflatoxigenic Fungi 36
Examination of Fungal Colonies under UV Light 38
Detection of Aflatoxins in Corn Kernels Contaminated with Aflatoxigenic Fungi 40
Detection of Mycotoxigenic Fungi by Polymerase Chain ReactionPolymerase Chain Reaction 40
AflatoxinsAflatoxins 40
Other Mycotoxins 41
Detection and Determination of Mycotoxins in the Analytical Laboratory 42
High Performance Liquid ChromatographyHigh Performance Liquid Chromatography 42
HPLC-Mass SpectrometryHPLC-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) and HPLC-Tandem Mass SpectrometryHPLC-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS-MS) 42
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay KitsELISA Kits 43
Lateral Flow ImmunochromatographyLateral Flow Immunochromatography 44
New BiosensorsBiosensors 46
Surface Plasmon ResonanceSPR 46
Fluorescent PolarizationFluorescent Polarization Immunoassay 46
Molecular ImprintingMolecular Imprinting 47
Arrays of BiosensorsArrays of Biosensors 47
Electronic NosesElectronic Noses 47
Straight from the Baker's Oven: Solid State SsDNA Odor SensorsSolid State Ssdna Odor Sensors 48
Conclusion 48
References 48
Online Resources 52
161309_1_En_3_Chapter_OnlinePDF 53
Chapter 3: The Destruction of Aflatoxins in Corn by ``Nixtamalización´´ 53
Introduction 53
The Process of ``NixtamalizaciónNixtamalización´´ 54
Facts about the LimeLimeLime 55
Chemical Changes in Maize MaizeMaizeMaizeMaizeduring ``NixtamalizaciónNixtamalización´´ 55
Physical Changes in MaizeMaize During ``NixtamalizaciónNixtamalización´´ 56
TypesTypes of ``NixtamalizaciónNixtamalización´´ 56
Nixtamalización and Aflatoxins 57
Nixtamalización and RadiolabelRadiolabel Aflatoxins 58
DisadvantagesDisadvantages of Traditional NixtamalizaciónNixtamalización 60
Future Perspectives 61
Conclusions 61
References 62
161309_1_En_4_Chapter_OnlinePDF 64
Chapter Chapter 4: Mycotoxigenic Fungi on Baled Grass Silage in Ireland 64
Introduction 64
How Do Fungi Infect Baled Silage? 65
Significance of Fungi on Silage 65
Mycotoxigenic FungiMycotoxigenic fungi Occurring on Baled Grass Silage in Ireland 65
P. roqueforti and P. paneum TaxonomyMycotoxigenic fungiPenicillium roqueforti and P. paneum taxonomy 67
Physiology of P. roqueforti and P. paneumMycotoxigenic fungiPhysiology of Penicillium roqueforti and P. paneum 67
Mycotoxins Produced by P. roqueforti and P. paneumMycotoxigenic fungiMycotoxins produced by Penicillium roqueforti and P. pane 69
PatulinMycotoxigenic fungiPatulin 69
PR ToxinMycotoxigenic fungiPR toxin 70
RoquefortineMycotoxigenic fungiRoquefortine 70
Mycophenolic acidMycotoxigenic fungiMycophenolic acid 71
Conclusions 72
References 72
161309_1_En_5_Chapter_OnlinePDF 77
Chapter Chapter 5: Aflatoxin-like Gene Clusters and How They Evolved 77
Polyketide Biosynthesis Overview 77
AspergillusAspergillus Genomics 78
AF-Like Gene Clustergene clusters in Species Incapable of AF Production 80
Clusters in Species that Make B and G AFs Compared to Those that Produce Only B AFs 80
Origin of Genes in Secondary Metabolite Clusters 81
Why are Gene Clusters Maintained? 82
References 84
161309_1_En_6_Chapter_OnlinePDF 88
Chapter Chapter 6: Aflatoxin Biosynthesis and Sclerotial Development in Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus 88
Introduction 88
Aflatoxin Biosynthesis Gene Cluster 89
Instability of Aflatoxin Gene Cluster in A. flavus 90
Transcriptional Regulation of Aflatoxin Biosynthesis 90
The aflR and aflJ Genes 90
G-Protein Signaling Pathway and PkaA 92
Calcium Signaling Pathway 93
The laeA Gene 94
The veA Gene 94
Oxidative Stress and Aflatoxin Production 95
Sclerotial Production by A. flavus and A. parasiticus 96
Sclerotial Morphogenesis 96
A. flavus Sclerotial Morphotypes 96
Secondary Metabolites in Aspergillus sclerotia 96
Nutritional Effects 97
Light as a Major Determinant 98
Oxidative Stress and Sclerotial Biogenesis 98
References 99
161309_1_En_7_Chapter_OnlinePDF 104
Chapter 7: Interaction Between Aflatoxin B1 and Other Risk Factors in Hepatocarcinogenesis 104
Introduction 104
Synergistic Hepatocarcinogenic Interaction Between Chronic Hepatitis B Virus Infection and Aflatoxin B1 Exposure 105
Possible Mechanisms of Interaction between Aflatoxin B1 and Hepatitis B Virushepatitis B virus in Hepatocarcinogenesis 108
Interaction Between Aflatoxin B1 and Chronic Hepatitis C Virushepatitis C virus Infection in Hepatocarcinogenesishepatocarcin 109
Synergistic Interaction Between Aflatoxin B1 and Dietary Iron Overload in Hepatic Mutaginesis 110
Possible Mechanisms of Interaction Between Aflatoxin B1 and Iron Overload in Hepatocarcinogenesis 113
CirrhosisCirrhosis as a Possible Tumour Promoter for Aflatoxin B1-Induced Hepatocarcinogenesis 113
AlcoholAlcohol as a Possible Tumour Promoter in Aflatoxin B1-Induced Hepatocarcinogenesishepatocarcinogenesis 113
Interaction Between Aflatoxin B1and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Hepatocarcinogenesishepatocarcinogenesis 116
References 116
161309_1_En_8_Chapter_OnlinePDF 123
Chapter 8: Zearalenone and its Derivatives: Known Toxins in New Aspects 123
Introduction 123
Chemical StructureZearalenoneChemical structure, PropertiesZearalenoneProperties and DerivativesZearalenoneDerivatives of Zear 125
OccurrenceZearalenoneOccurrence of Zearalenone in Foods and Feeds 126
GuidelinesZearalenoneGuidelines 127
Toxic EffectsZearalenoneToxic effects on Animals of Experimental Feeds Contaminated with ZON and Natural Occurrence of the Tox 128
Methods of ZON DetoxicationZearalenoneDetoxication 132
Conclusion 134
References 135
161309_1_En_9_Chapter_OnlinePDF 140
Chapter 9: Zearalenone: Undesirable Substance 140
Introduction 140
Moulds and Their Products 141
PhytoestrogensPhytoestrogens 142
Zearalenone 143
Zearalenone Absorption 144
Zearalenone Biotransformation 145
Zearalenone Hormonal Properties 147
Environmental Estrogens 147
Cooperation of the Immunological System with Steroid Hormones 148
Conclusion 150
References 150
161309_1_En_2_Part_OnlinePDF 154
Chapter : 154
161309_1_En_10_Chapter_OnlinePDF 155
161309_1_En_11_Chapter_OnlinePDF 171
Chapter 11: Control of Mycotoxin Contamination in Cereals by Breeding 171
Introduction 171
Legal Toxin Regulations and Their Consequences 172
Resistance to Disease and Toxin 173
Resistance and Toxin Relation in the Wheat Fusarium Head Blight Syndrome 174
Resistance and Toxin Resistance Relations Against Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium Ear Blight in Maize 178
Conclusions and Outlook 180
References 181
161309_1_En_12_Chapter_OnlinePDF 186
Chapter 12: Fusarium and Fumonisins in Maize in South America 186
Introduction 186
Fumonisin Producers Fusarium SpeciesFumonisinsproducers Fusarium species 187
Fumonisin BiosynthesisFumonisinsbiosynthesis 189
Ecophysiology of Fungal Species 189
Occurrence of FumonisinsFumonisinsOccurrence of 192
Stability of Fumonisin During ProcessingFumonisinsstability during processing 194
Sorting and Cleaning 194
Milling 195
Brewing 195
Thermal Processing and Extrusion 195
CornCornVéase maize Flake Process 196
Methods of Detection of FumonisinsFumonisinsmethods of detection 196
Biological EffectFumonisinsbiological effect 196
Control of Fumonisin ProductionFumonisinprevention and control 198
Regulations for FumonisinsFumonisinsRegulations 200
Conclusions and Future Perspectives 200
References 200
161309_1_En_13_Chapter_OnlinePDF 208
Chapter 13: Prevention and Management of Mycotoxins in Food and Feed 208
Introduction 208
Prevention of Mycotoxin Contamination 208
Pre-Harvest Management 209
Environmental Conditions 209
Resistant Varieties 209
Field Management 210
Use of Chemical and Biological Agents 211
Harvest Management 211
Post-Harvest Management 211
Improving of Drying and Storage Conditions 211
Use of Chemical and Natural Agents 212
Irradiation 212
Decontamination/Detoxification of Mycotoxins 213
Removal of Mycotoxins from Contaminated Commodities 213
Physical Separation 213
Cleaning 213
Sorting and Segregation 214
Washing 214
Milling 215
Extraction with Solvents 215
Adsorption 215
Inactivation of Mycotoxins in Contaminated Commodities 216
Physical Methods 216
Thermal Treatment 216
IrradiationIrradiation 216
Chemical Methods 216
Acid TreatmentAcid-treatment 219
Treatment with Bases 219
Oxidizing Agents 219
Reducing Agents 220
Chlorinating Agents 220
Other Chemicals 220
Biological Methods 221
Inhibition of Mycotoxin Absorption in the Gastrointestinal Tract 222
Activated Carbon 222
Hydrated Sodium Calcium AluminosilicateHydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS) 222
ZeolitesZeolites 225
Bentonite 225
Cholestyramine 226
Yeast and Yeast-Derived Products 226
Probiotic BacteriaProbiotic bacteria 226
Conclusions 227
References 227
161309_1_En_14_Chapter_OnlinePDF 235
Chapter 14: Mycotoxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins in Animal Feed in South American Countries 235
Introduction 235
Occurrence of Toxigenic Fungal Species and Mycotoxins in Raw Materials and Feedstuffs 236
Silage and Ready Dairy Cattle Feed 236
Mycoflora and Mycotoxin Incidence 237
Poultry, Pig, Rabbit and Equine Feed 245
Mycoflora Incidence 245
Toxigenic Ability of Potential Mycotoxin Producer 247
Mycotoxin IncidenceMycotoxin incidence 248
Ready Pet Food 250
Mycoflora IncidenceMycoflora incidence 250
Toxigenic Ability 250
Mycotoxin IncidenceMycotoxin incidence 251
Conclusions and Future Perspectives 251
References 253
161309_1_En_3_Part_OnlinePDF 257
Chapter : 257
161309_1_En_15_Chapter_OnlinePDF 258
Chapter 15: Nivalenol: The Mycology, Occurrence, Toxicology, Analysis and Regulation 258
Introduction 258
MycologyMycology 259
Occurrence 262
Distribution of NIV Contamination 262
Occurrence of NIV in Japan 264
Toxicology 265
Acute Toxicity 265
Chronic Toxicity 266
Immunotoxicity 267
Carcinogenesis 270
Analysis 270
Detection Methods for Trichothecenes Including NIV 270
LC-MS Analytical Method for the Determination of Trichothecenes 271
Regulation 273
Conclusion 273
References 275
161309_1_En_16_Chapter_OnlinePDF 279
Chapter 16: Yeast Killer Toxins Technology Transfer 279
Introduction 279
Microbial Biotyping by the Yeast Killer System 280
Industrial and Biotechnological Applications of the Yeast Killer System 283
Yeast Killer System Applications in Biomedicine 285
Killer Toxins as Potential Antimicrobial Agentsantimicrobial agents 285
Yeast Killer Toxin-Neutralizing Antibodies and Idiotypic Vaccinationidiotypic vaccination 286
Antiidiotypic Monoclonal and Recombinant Antibiobodiesantibiobodies 287
Antibiobody-Derived Killer Peptideskiller peptides 288
Conclusions and Future Perspectives 289
References 291
161309_1_En_17_Chapter_OnlinePDF 295
Chapter Chapter 17: Trichothecenes as Toxin and Bioweapons: Prevention and Control 295
Introduction 295
Incidence in Agriculture 296
Type of TrichothecenesType of trichothecenes 296
Chemical Nature of Trichothecenes 297
T-2 Toxin 297
HT-2 toxinHT-2 toxin 297
DONDeoxynivalenol 298
NivalenolNivalenol 298
In Vitro Production of T-2 Toxinproduction of T-2 toxin 298
Detection of TrichothecenesDetection of Trichothecenes 300
ToxicityToxicity of T-2 Toxin 301
Role of Trichothecenes in War 302
Mode of ActionMode of Action of T-2 and HT-2 Toxin 303
Effects on DNA and RNA Synthesis 303
Effects on Protein SynthesisProtein Synthesis 304
Effects on Membranes and Lipid Peroxidationlipid peroxidation 304
Effect on Nutrients 304
Alterations of Cellular Membranes 304
ApoptosisApoptosis of Human Lymphocytes In Vitro 305
Prevention and ControlPrevention and control of Trichothecenes 305
Prevention of Mold Growth 305
Drying and Cooking of Grains 305
Controlled Atmosphere Storage 306
Chemical Treatment 306
Conclusion and Future Directions 306
References 307
161309_1_En_18_Chapter_OnlinePDF 310
Chapter Chapter 18: Risk Assessment of Ochratoxin A (OTA) 310
Introduction 310
Toxicological Assessment of OTA 311
Acute Toxicity 311
Short-term to 90-Day Studies 312
Long-term Studies on Toxicity and Carcinogenicity 312
Genotoxicity, Cytotoxicity and Epigenesis 313
Teratogenicity 314
Immunotoxicity 315
Nephrotoxicity 315
Toxic Effects of OTA on Farm Livestock 316
Toxic Effects of OTA in Humans 317
Endpoint of OTA Hazard Characterization - Provisional Tolerable Daily Intake 318
Exposure Assessment of Animal and Human to OTA 319
OTA Occurrence in Feed and its Intake by Farm Livestock 320
OTA Occurrence in Food and Human Dietary Exposure 321
Risk Characterisation 323
Conclusions 324
References 324
161309_1_En_19_Chapter_OnlinePDF 332
161309_1_En_20_Chapter_OnlinePDF 356
Chapter Chapter 20: The Myco-Agents of Bioterrorism 356
Introduction 356
History 356
Mycotoxins 357
Trichothecenes 357
Aflatoxins 360
Ochratoxin A 362
Ergotism 364
Conclusion 366
References 366
161309_1_En_21_Chapter_OnlinePDF 369
Chapter Chapter 21: The Weaponisation of Mycotoxins 369
Introduction 369
Fungal Toxins and Metabolites as Weapons 372
Fungal Toxins 373
a-Aminitin 375
Aflatoxins 375
T-2 Toxin 375
An Example 376
Water as a Vector 376
Fungal Biological Control Agents 377
Taxonomy 378
Genetically Modified FungiGenetically modified fungi (GMO) 379
Security of Laboratories and Obtaining Pure Mycotoxins 379
Mycotoxicosis TreatmentMycotoxicosis treatment 381
Mycotoxin DecontaminationMycotoxin decontamination 381
Some Priorities 382
Future Trends 382
Conclusions 383
References 384
161309_1_En_BM2_OnlinePDF 400
: Index 400
Chapter Chapter 22: Masked Mycotoxins and Mycotoxin Derivatives in Food: The Hidden Menace 387
Introduction 387
Masked Mycotoxins and Mycotoxin Derivatives Arising from the Interactions of Moulds with Plants 388
Zearalenone 389
Deoxynivalenol 390
Ochratoxin A 391
Transformations of Mycotoxins During Food Processing 392
Fumonisins 392
Trichothecenes 394
Toxicity of Mycotoxin Derivatives 395
Conclusions 396
References 397