Loudness (eBook)

Series Preface 8
Volume Preface 10
Contents 12
Contributors 14
Chapter 1: Loudness 16
1.1 Why Learn About Loudness? 16
1.2 Definition and Meaning of Loudness 18
1.3 Loudness, Language, and Culture 22
1.4 Current State of Knowledge Regarding Loudness 24
References 28
Chapter 2: Measurement of Loudness, Part I: Methods, Problems, and Pitfalls 31
2.1 Introduction 31
2.2 A Brief History of Loudness Measurement 32
2.2.1 Measurement of Loudness: Recognizing the Psychophysical Problem 33
2.2.1.1 Fechner’s Law and Fechnerian Measurement 34
2.2.1.2 Fechnerian Loudness and the Principle of Equality 37
2.2.2 Early Attempts to Measure Loudness in the Twentieth Century 39
2.2.2.1 Fechner’s Law and the Use of Decibels to Measure Loudness 39
2.2.2.2 Measuring Loudness from Response Times: Piéron’s Law 40
2.2.2.3 Measuring Loudness by Additivity: Fletcher and Munson’s Loudness Scale 41
2.2.2.4 Measuring Loudness by Judging Ratios: The Original Sone Scale 42
2.2.3 Sone Scale of Loudness and Stevens’s Law 43
2.3 Contemporary Approaches to Measuring Loudness 45
2.3.1 Equal Loudness Matching 46
2.3.1.1 Measuring Equal Loudness with the Method of Adjustment 47
2.3.1.2 Measuring Equal Loudness with Adaptive Methods 47
2.3.2 Loudness Scaling 50
2.3.2.1 Category Scales 52
2.3.2.2 Magnitude Estimation Scales of Loudness 56
2.3.2.3 Magnitude Production and Cross-Modality Matching 59
2.3.2.4 Magnitude Estimation, Magnitude Production, Cross-Modality Matching, and the Principle of Equality 60
2.3.3 Measuring Loudness of Long-Duration Sounds 62
2.4 Evaluative Summary 62
References 64
Chapter 3: Measurement of Loudness, Part II: Context Effects 71
3.1 Introduction 71
3.2 Hypothetical Stages in Processing Auditory Intensity 73
3.3 Effects of Stimulus Distribution 74
3.3.1 Effects of Stimulus Distribution I: Changing Stimulus Range 74
3.3.2 Effects of Stimulus Distribution II: Changing Mean Intensity Level 76
3.3.3 Effects of Stimulus Distribution III: Changing Presentation Frequency and Stimulus Spacing 78
3.3.4 Durlach and Braida’s Theory of Intensity Perception 83
3.4 Differential Context Effects 83
3.5 Induced Loudness Reduction 87
3.5.1 Relation to Other Sequential Effects in Loudness 88
3.5.2 Possible Mechanisms of ILR 89
3.5.3 Induced Loudness Reduction and Loudness Enhancement 90
3.5.4 Induced Loudness Reduction and Differential Context Effects: Mediated by the Same Mechanism? 91
3.6 Assimilation Effects and Contrast Effects 93
3.7 Cross-Modal Context Effects 94
3.8 Summary 97
References 98
Chapter 4: Correlates of Loudness 102
4.1 Introduction 102
4.2 The Physiological Effects of Loud Sounds 102
4.2.1 Nonauditory Effects 102
4.2.1.1 Acoustic Startle Reflex 102
4.2.1.2 Short-Term Psychophysical Effects of Loud Sounds 103
4.2.1.3 Long-Term Psychophysical Effects of Loud Sounds 103
4.2.1.4 Cognitive Effects of Loud Sounds 104
4.2.1.5 Sleep Disruption 104
4.2.2 Auditory Effects 105
4.2.2.1 Temporary Effects 105
Acoustic Reflex 105
Temporary Loudness Shift 106
Adaptation 108
Induced Loudness Reduction 108
4.2.2.2 Permanent Hearing Loss 108
Cochlear Damage 108
Neuronal Loss or Reorganization 109
Hearing Loss 109
Tinnitus 109
4.3 Laboratory Uses of Correlates of Loudness 111
4.3.1 Perceptual Correlates 111
4.3.1.1 Loudness Measurements 111
4.3.1.2 Reaction Time 111
4.3.2 Physiological Correlates 112
4.3.2.1 Otoacoustic Emissions 112
4.3.2.2 Auditory Brainstem Response and Auditory Steady-State Response 113
4.3.2.3 Basilar-Membrane Velocity 113
4.3.2.4 Loudness Coding in Neurons 113
4.3.2.5 Brain Scans 115
4.3.2.6 Direct Electrical Measurements and Stimulation 115
4.4 Summary 116
References 116
Chapter 5: Loudness in the Laboratory, Part I: Steady-State Sounds 121
5.1 Introduction 121
5.2 Loudness as a Function of Intensity 122
5.2.1 The Loudness Function 122
5.2.2 Variability in the Exponent 124
5.2.3 Loudness near Threshold 125
5.2.4 Loudness at High Levels 128
5.2.5 Loudness as a Reflection of Compressive Nonlinearity 128
5.3 Loudness as a Function of Frequency 130
5.3.1 Loudness Contours 130
5.3.2 Loudness Functions at Low and High Frequencies 133
5.4 Loudness as a Function of Duration 134
5.5 Loudness as a Function of Bandwidth 137
5.5.1 Measures of the Critical Band 137
5.5.2 Contributions of Individual Components to Total Loudness 139
5.5.3 Effect of Overall Level 141
5.6 Partial Masking of Loudness 143
5.7 Loudness as a Function of Age 147
5.7.1 Loudness During Infancy and Childhood 147
5.7.2 Loudness and the Aging Auditory System 149
5.8 Summary 150
References 152
Chapter 6: Loudness in the Laboratory, Part II: Non-Steady-State Sounds 157
6.1 Introduction 157
6.2 Classification of Time-Varying Sounds 159
6.2.1 Classification in ISO 2204 159
6.2.2 Problems in the Classification of Non-Steady-State Sounds 159
6.2.3 Classification of Non-Steady-State Soundson the Basis of Hearing 162
6.3 Loudness of Regular Time-Varying Sounds 162
6.3.1 Modulation Frequency and Loudness 162
6.3.2 The Effect of Rise Time of a Sound on Loudness 163
6.3.3 The Effect of Temporal Position of an Intensity Increment of a Sound on Loudness 166
6.4 Loudness of Irregular Time-Varying Sounds 169
6.5 Evaluation of Non-Steady-State Sound and Duration 170
6.6 Continuous Judgments of Loudness Along a Temporal Stream 173
6.6.1 The Method of Continuous Judgment by Category 173
6.6.2 Estimation of Psychological Present 174
6.6.3 Relation Between Overall Judgment and Instantaneous Judgment 175
6.7 Application of Laboratory Experiments and Field Studies 176
6.8 Summary 177
References 177
Chapter 7: Binaural Loudness 181
7.1 Introduction 181
7.2 Measuring Binaural Loudness 182
7.2.1 Intramodal Matching 182
7.2.2 Psychophysical Scaling 183
7.2.3 Axiomatic Measurement and Nonmetric Scaling 186
7.3 Headphone Investigations 187
7.3.1 Outcome of Matching Studies: Binaural Gain 188
7.3.2 Outcome of Scaling Studies 189
7.3.3 Stimulus Variables Affecting Binaural Summation 190
7.4 Loudness of Sound Fields 192
7.4.1 Free Field 193
7.4.2 Diffuse Field 194
7.4.3 Directional Sound Fields 196
7.4.4 Distance and Loudness Constancy 199
7.4.5 Headphone vs. Loudspeaker Presentation 201
7.5 Applications 203
7.6 Summary 205
References 206
Chapter 8: Loudness in Daily Environments 210
8.1 Introduction 210
8.2 Loudness and Annoyance 211
8.2.1 Annoyance 211
8.2.2 Impact of the Meaning of a Sound Source on Annoyance and Loudness 211
8.2.3 Complex Nature of Acceptable Loudness Levels in Communities 213
8.3 Loudness and Music 214
8.3.1 Music Can Be Loud and Not Annoying 214
8.3.2 Loud Music and Hearing Loss 215
8.3.3 Language of Loudness for Music (Musical Notation) 216
8.3.4 Increasing Loudness Without Increasing Level 217
8.3.5 Loudness Rating for Different Types/Styles of Music 218
8.4 Multisensory Interactions in Ratings of Loudness 219
8.4.1 Audio–Visual Interactions 219
8.4.2 Influence of Color on Loudness 220
8.4.3 Audio–Tactile Interactions and Loudness 221
8.5 Cognitive Effects in Loudness Ratings 222
8.5.1 Complex Influences of Context on Loudness 222
8.5.2 Loudness and Distance, Loudness Constancy, and Binaural Loudness Constancy 223
8.6 Optimal Loudness for Groups of People in Various Environments 224
8.6.1 Optimal Loudness for Music Halls 224
8.6.2 Optimal Loudness in Background Noise 225
8.6.3 Sound-Level Meters vs. Sonemeters 226
8.6.4 Estimating Loudness for Groups of People 227
8.7 Summary 228
References 228
Chapter 9: Loudness and Hearing Loss 233
9.1 Introduction 233
9.2 Formation of Loudness: Normal and Impaired Hearing 235
9.2.1 Peripheral Sound Transformations 236
9.2.1.1 External and Middle Ear Transformations 236
9.2.1.2 Cochlear Frequency Analysis 237
9.2.1.3 Cochlear Compression 237
9.2.1.4 Inner Hair Cell Transduction and Neural Spike Generation 239
9.2.1.5 Auditory Nerve Spike Transmission 240
9.2.1.6 Physiological Interpretation of Altered Loudness Perception 241
9.2.2 From Auditory Nerve Impulse Patterns to Perceived Loudness 242
9.2.2.1 Loudness Summation Across Auditory Neurons 243
9.2.2.2 Temporal Integration of Loudness 243
9.2.2.3 Binaural Loudness Summation 243
9.2.2.4 Loudness near the Hearing Threshold 244
9.2.3 Tinnitus 245
9.2.4 Hyperacusis 246
9.3 Exploring the Auditory Dynamic Range 246
9.3.1 Psychoacoustic Measurements 247
9.3.1.1 Threshold, Most Comfortable Loudness Level, and Uncomfortable Loudness Level 247
9.3.1.2 Loudness Scaling 247
9.3.1.3 Loudness Balancing 247
9.3.1.4 Measurements for the Pediatric Population 249
9.3.2 Otoacoustic Emissions 249
9.3.3 Electrophysiological Measurements 250
9.3.4 Impedance Measurements 250
9.3.5 Model-Based Prediction of Loudness 250
9.4 Loudness and Hearing-Aid Fitting 251
9.4.1 Loudness-Based Hearing-Aid Fitting Principles 251
9.4.1.1 Rationales for Prescribing Hearing-Aid Gain 251
9.4.1.2 Model-Based or Measurement-Based Prescriptions 252
9.4.2 Prescribed and Preferred Loudness 253
9.4.2.1 Prescribed and Preferred Loudness: Linear Hearing Aids 254
9.4.2.2 Prescribed and Preferred Loudness: Nonlinear Hearing Aids 255
9.4.2.3 Hearing-Aid Experience as a Predictor of Preferred Loudness 257
9.4.2.4 Fast Loudness-Restoring Hearing Aid Compression 258
9.4.3 Binaural Loudness and Hearing-Aid Fitting 258
9.4.4 Conductive and Mixed Hearing Losses 259
9.5 Loudness and Cochlear Implants 259
9.5.1 Exploring the Dynamic Range in Cochlear Implant Fitting 260
9.5.2 Loudness Considerations in Cochlear Implant Fittings 260
9.6 Summary 261
References 262
Chapter 10: Models of Loudness 270
10.1 Introduction 270
10.1.1 What Is a Model? 270
10.1.1.1 Describe 270
10.1.1.2 Predict 271
10.1.1.3 Test Hypotheses 271
10.2 Modeling the Loudness of a Pure Tone 271
10.2.1 The Logarithm Model 272
10.2.2 The Power Function Model 273
10.2.3 InEx Function Model 275
10.3 Loudness of Complex Sounds 276
10.3.1 Loudness as Estimated by Level Meters in dB(A, B, C,…) 277
10.3.2 Zwicker’s Model 277
10.3.2.1 Stage I: From Signal to Level of Excitation 278
10.3.2.2 Stage II: From Excitation Pattern to Specific Loudness 280
10.3.2.3 Stage III: From Specific Loudness to Overall Loudness 281
10.3.3 Moore and Glasberg’s Model 281
10.3.3.1 Stage I. Transmission Through the Outer Ear 283
10.3.3.2 Stage II. Transmission Through the Middle Ear 283
10.3.3.3 Stage III. Transformation of the Spectrum to Excitation Pattern 283
10.3.3.4 Stage IV. Transformation of Excitation Pattern to Specific Loudness 284
10.3.3.5 Stage V. Transformation from Specific Loudness to Overall Loudness 285
10.4 Loudness Models for Temporally Varying Sounds 285
10.4.1 Time Constants and Sound Level Meters 285
10.4.2 Zwicker’s Model for Nonstationary Sounds 285
10.4.3 The Model of Moore and Glasberg for Nonstationary Sounds 286
10.4.3.1 Instantaneous Loudness 286
10.4.3.2 Short-Term Loudness 287
10.4.3.3 Loudness Models for Long-Duration Sounds 288
10.5 Loudness Models Applied to Hearing-Impaired Listeners 288
10.5.1 Modeling the Loudness of Pure Tones for Hearing-Impaired Listeners 288
10.5.1.1 Rapid Growth Model 289
10.5.1.2 Softness Imperception Model 289
10.5.2 Zwicker’s Loudness Model Applied to Noise-Induced Hearing Loss 290
10.5.2.1 Modification by Florentine and Zwicker 290
10.5.2.2 Modification by Chalupper and Fastl 291
10.5.2.3 Modification by Launer 291
10.5.3 The Loudness Model of Moore and Glasberg Applied to Noise-Induced Hearing Loss 291
10.6 Summary 292
References 293
Index 294