Handbook of Group Decision and Negotiation (eBook)

D. Marc Kilgour is Professor of Mathematics at Wilfrid Laurier University, Research Director: Conflict Analysis for the Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies, and Adjunct Professor of Systems Engineering at University of Waterloo. His main research interest is optimal decision-making in multi-decision-maker and multi-criteria contexts, including deterrence and counter-terrorism, power-sharing, fair division, voting, negotiation, and infrastructure management. Colin Eden is Associate Dean and Director of the International Division of the University of Strathclyde Business School. He is Professor of Strategic Management and Management Science. His major research interests are into the relationship between operational decision making practices and their strategic consequences; the processes of strategy making in senior management teams; making strategy; managerial and organisational cognition; ‘soft OR’ modelling approaches and methodologies, including particular emphasis on the role of cognitive mapping; the theory of consultancy practice; the process and practice of ‘action research’; and the modelling of the behaviour of large projects disruptions and delays, including issues of the dynamics of productivity changes, and learning curves; and the use of group decision support in the analysis, negotiation and making of strategy.

Preface 6
About the Editors 8
Contents 9
Contributors 11
Introduction to the Handbook of Group Decision and Negotiation 14
What is Group Decision and Negotiation? 14
Organization of the Handbook 15
Part I: The Context of Group Decision and Negotiation 15
Part II: Analysis of Collective Decisions: Principles and Procedures 16
Part III: Facilitated Group Decision and Negotiation 17
Part IV: Electronic Negotiation 19
Conclusions 20
References 20
Part I The Context of Group Decision and Negotiation 21
Group Decisions and Negotiations in the Knowledge Civilization Era 22
Introduction 22
Basic Megatrends of Informational Revolution 23
The Change of Episteme and of Ways of Perceiving the World 24
New Micro-theories of Knowledge Creation: the Role of a Group 26
An Evolutionary Theory of Intuition and Its Impacts on Negotiations 28
The Issue of Objective Ranking in Group Decision Making 29
The Multimedia Principle, the Emergence Principle and a Spiral of Evolutionary Knowledge Creation 31
Conclusions 33
References 34
``Invisible Whispering": Restructuring Meeting Processes with Instant Messaging 36
Introduction 36
Prior Research and Theory 37
Meetings and Meeting Support Technologies 37
Instant Messaging 38
Goffman's Dramaturgical Frame 39
Method 40
Participants 40
Data Collection 41
Data Analysis 41
Findings 42
Creating Multiple Stages 42
Invisible Whispering as a Distinct Communicative Genre 43
Directing the Meeting 44
Providing Focal Task Support 45
Seeking Clarification 45
Providing Social Support 45
Participating in a Parallel Subgroup Meeting 46
Managing Extra-Meeting Activities 46
Use of Invisible Whispering 47
Discussion 48
Invisible Whispering and Individual Attention 49
Invisible Whispering and Group Decision-Making 50
Invisible Whispering and Group Dynamics 52
Other Implications for Research and Practice 52
Conclusion 53
Appendix: Initial Protocol for Semi-structured Interviews at GlobalNet 53
References 54
Soft Computing for Groups Making Hard Decisions 57
Introduction 57
Fuzzy Real Option Valuation: The Analysis Instrument 60
The Production Plant and Future Scenarios 64
Closing/Not Closing a Plant: Information Systems Support 66
Group Consensus 71
Discussion and Conclusions 73
References 74
Emotion in Negotiation 75
Introduction 75
Emotion in Cognitive Theory 75
Emotion in Argumentation and Negotiation Theory 77
Current Trends 79
Emotion in VR Simulated Negotiation 80
Example 1 81
Language and Emotion in E-Negotiation 81
Studies on Specific Emotions and General Affect 82
Functional Potential and Multi-functionality of Emotions in Negotiation 83
Example 2 84
Structure of the Plea Bargain 85
Flattery -- Confidence, Cooperation 86
Extract 1. 86
Entertainment -- Seriousness 87
Ridicule, Sarcasm -- Confusion, Angst 88
Agreeable and Helpfulness -- Incompetence 89
Elicitation of Empathy -- Refusal of Empathy, Irony 89
Aggression -- Rebuts and Anxiety 90
Re-contextualization or Agreement in a Parallel World 91
Evolution of Emotion in Negotiation 91
Between Man and Man 92
Conclusions 92
References 93
Doing Right: Connectedness Problem Solving and Negotiation 97
Introduction 97
One, Two, Agent, System, Purpose, Consciousness, Connectedness, Common Ground and Communication 97
Social Connectedness: Connectedness with Others, the ''Other'' (Other Agents) 99
Purpose Connectedness System Connectedness: Problem System Connectedness with the ESD Problem Representation
Spirituality Connectedness: Connectedness with One 100
Common Ground 100
Communication, Dialogue and Negotiation 101
Frameworks 101
Connectedness Problem Solving and Negotiation (CPSN) and the Evolutionary Systems Design (ESD) Systems-Spirituality Framework 101
Evolutionary Systems Design (ESD) 102
Purpose in Hierarchies 1 and 2 105
Shared Inherent Purpose 106
High-Level Purposes/Values 106
Doing Right 107
Recapitulation: CPSN Through ESD (CPSN-ESD) 107
Intelligence and ESD 107
Rationality to Spiritual (Right) Rationality 108
Problems 108
Right Problem Solving, Spiritual (Right) Rationality and Right Action 109
ESD Spiritual (Right) Rationality Validation Test 110
Spiritual Rationality and Right Problem Solving: Theory and Practice, Surrogates 111
Beginning/Continuing Negotiation: Accessing Connectedness with One, Surrogates and Intermediates 113
Beginning/Continuing Negotiation: Connectedness with Others 113
Technology: Computer Implementation of ESD and Applications 114
Applications 114
Concluding Remarks 114
Present-to-Future Work 115
To Live Two as One 116
References 116
The Role of Justice in Negotiation 118
Overview 118
How Justice Influences Negotiation Processes, Outcomes and Durability 119
Distributive Justice and Durability 120
Procedural Justice and Durability 123
Explaining the Meaning of Equality 124
Third Party Roles in Equality Provisions 124
Search for Mechanisms: Trust and Problem Solving 126
Conclusion 126
References 127
Analysis of Negotiation Processes 129
Introduction 129
Discourse Analysis and Ethnographic Studies 132
Frequency Analysis 134
Interaction Analysis 134
Phase Analysis 136
Offer Process Analysis 138
Time Series Analysis 140
Information Theory and Grammar Complexity 141
Discussion 143
References 144
Part II Analysis of Collective Decisions: Principles and Procedures 147
Non-Cooperative Bargaining Theory 148
Introduction: Game Theory and Negotiation 148
Approaches to Modelling Negotiation 148
Non-cooperative Models of Bargaining 149
Non-cooperative Multilateral Bargaining 151
Conclusions 155
References 155
Cooperative Game Theory Approaches to Negotiation 157
Introduction 157
The Bargaining Model 159
Bargaining Rules and Axioms 161
The Nash Rule 161
The Kalai-Smorodinsky Rule 163
The Egalitarian Rule 165
Other Rules 166
Strategic Considerations 167
Ordinal Bargaining 169
Conclusion 171
References 171
Voting Systems for Social Choice 173
Introduction 173
A Look at the Classics 174
Single-Winner Voting Systems 177
Agenda-Based Systems 178
Evaluating Voting Systems 179
Profile Analysis Techniques 181
Some Fundamental Results 183
Methods for Reaching Consensus 184
Multi-winner Contexts 185
The Best Voting System? 186
References 187
Fair Division 189
Introduction 189
Cutting Cakes and Dividing Sets of Items 190
One Divisible Object 190
Formal Framework 191
Properties 191
Cake-Cutting Procedures 192
Entitlements 193
Cakes and Pies 193
Incentives 194
Computational Aspects 195
Allocating Divisible and/or Indivisible Objects 195
Sharing Costs or Benefits 197
Dividing a Fixed Resource or Cost 197
Proportional Method 197
Properties 198
Uniform Losses 198
Uniform Gains 199
Contested Garment Method and Extensions 199
Indivisibilities 201
Incentives 202
Division of Variable Resources/Costs 202
Fair Division on Graphs 203
Economics and Fair Division 205
Conclusion 206
References 207
Conflict Analysis Methods: The Graph Model for Conflict Resolution 209
Introduction 209
The Analysis of Strategic Conflicts 209
The Graph Model for Conflict Resolution: Fundamentals 212
Graph Model Definitions 212
Graph Model Stability Analysis 214
The Decision Support System GMCR II 216
Basic Structure 216
Option-Form Entry of Graph Models 216
GMCR II Analysis and Output Display 217
Extending the Methodology: Matrix Representation 218
Matrix Representation and Analysis 218
Graph Models with Uncertain Preferences 221
Graph Models with Multiple Levels of Preference 222
Graph Models with Hybrid Preference Structures 222
Follow-Up Analysis 222
Coalition Analysis 223
Status Quo Analysis 223
Future Development of the Graph Model Methodology 225
Perceptual Graph Models 225
Policy Stability 225
Attitudes 225
Summary and Conclusions 225
References 227
The Role of Drama Theory in Negotiation 229
Introduction 229
Antecedents 229
The Drama Programme 231
The Dramatic Episode 232
Confrontation Analysis 234
From DT1 to DT2 238
Applications 246
Analysing Confrontation 246
Simulation 248
Software Support 249
Conclusion 250
References 250
Part III Facilitated Group Decision and Negotiation 252
Group Support Systems: Overview and Guided Tour 253
Growing Importance of Group Activities 253
Common Problems in Meetings 253
Techniques to Improve Meetings 254
Contribution of Behavioral Sciences 254
Contribution of Decision Sciences 255
Contribution of Information Systems 255
Convergence The Birth of GSS 255
Facilitation Teams 257
Typical GSS Applications 257
GSS Research 258
User Satisfaction 258
Meeting Effectiveness 258
Meeting Efficiency 259
Quality of Decision 259
Equality of Participation 259
Parallel Production 259
Anonymity 259
Structure 260
Group Size 260
Collaboration Engineering 260
Adoption of Group Support Systems 260
Recent Research 261
Group Support System Software 261
Meetingworks TM Software Modules 262
Meeting Management 262
Idea Generation 263
Idea Organizing 264
Idea Evaluation 265
External Linking 268
Time/Place Flexibility 269
References 269
Multicriteria Decision Analysis in Group Decision Processes 273
Introduction 273
MCDA Methods 274
Multiattribute Value and Utility Theory 275
The Analytic Hierarchy Process 276
Methodological Extensions 277
Group and Decision Characteristics 278
Design of MCDA-Assisted Decision Support Processes 279
MCDA Methods in Action 280
Rationales for the Deployment of MCDA Methods 282
Outlook for the Future 283
Conclusion 285
References 285
The Role of Group Decision Support Systems: Negotiating Safe Energy 288
Introduction 288
Group Decision Support Systems: Features Supporting Soft Negotiation 289
Background to GDSS 289
Group Explorer: A Group Decision Support System 290
The GDSS as a ''Transitional Object'' 291
Anonymity and Higher Group Productivity from a GDSS 292
Using a GDSS to Facilitate Soft Negotiation: Negotiating a Way of Working Between a Nuclear Power Station Owner and the Regulator 293
The Research 293
The Case 293
Preparation 294
The Meeting 295
Follow Up: Next Steps 300
Summary and Conclusions 300
Conclusions 300
Post Script 301
References 301
The Effect Of Structure On Convergence Activities Using Group Support Systems 303
Introduction 303
Background 303
Information Overload 304
Convergence 305
An Example from Recent Research 305
Hypotheses 306
Operationalization 306
Results 307
Discussion 308
The Broader Context of Convergence 309
Directions for Further Research 310
Conclusion 311
Appendix 311
References 312
Systems Thinking, Mapping, and Modeling in Group Decision and Negotiation 314
Introduction 314
Merging GDN Practice with System Simulation A Group Model Building Approach 315
Roles in System Dynamics Group Model Building 315
Boundary Objects in Group Model Building 317
The System Dynamics Group Modeling Process, In Brief 317
Elements of System Dynamics Group Model Building Meetings: Scripts 318
Dynamics 318
Introducing Elements of System Dynamics Modeling: Concept Models 318
Initiating Systems Mapping 320
Model Formulation, Testing, and Refinement: Ownership 321
Simulation 322
Discussion 323
References 324
Facilitated Group Decision Making in Hierarchical Contexts 326
Introduction: Hierarchical Decision Making 326
Characteristics of a Hierarchical Decision Problem 326
Role of Groups and Negotiation in the Hierarchy 327
How to Solve Hierarchical Planning Problems in Groups 327
Top-Down Approach 327
Bottom-Up Approach 328
Integrated View 329
Examples of Hierarchical Perspectives in Group Negotiation 329
Planning the Use of State-Owned Forests 329
Evaluation of the Current State 330
Defining the Management Goals for Natural Resources 330
Generation of Alternative Region-Level Management Strategies and an Estimation of Their Outcomes 330
Evaluation of the Strategy Alternatives 331
Designing Forest Policy at Regional and National Scales 333
Connecting Higher and Lower Levels of Hierarchy with an Incentive 334
Discussion and Relevant Aspects to Consider 335
Role of Mixed Methods: Making Qualitative and Quantitative Information Congruent 335
Maintaining Consistency Between the Levels 336
Fostering Group Learning and Collaboration 336
References 337
Collaboration Engineering 339
Introduction 339
The Business Case of Collaboration Support 340
The Collaboration Engineering Approach to Designing and Deploying Collaboration Support 341
Investment Decision 343
Task Analysis 343
Design 343
Transfer 343
Implementation and Sustained Use 343
ThinkLets 344
Generate 344
Reduce 344
Clarify 344
Organize 345
Evaluate 345
Consensus Building 345
ThinkLet Structure 345
Identification 346
Rule-Based Script 346
Selection Guidance 346
What Will Happen? 346
Case Study: Transferring a ThinkLets-Based Collaboration Process Design for Integrity Assessment 347
Research Instruments 348
Participant's Perception on Quality of Collaboration 349
Questionnaire for Practitioner Experience in Group Support 349
Questionnaire for Training Evaluation 349
Interview Protocol for Session Evaluation 349
Results 349
The Pilot Results 349
The Practitioners 349
The Training 350
The Practitioner Performance 350
Limitations 351
Discussion and Conclusions 352
Appendix A 353
LeafHopper (Generate) 353
GoldMiner (Reduce) 353
ExplainIt (Clarify) 353
PopcornSort (Organize) 354
StrawPoll (Evaluate) 354
Crowbar (Consensus Building) 354
References 354
Part IV Electronic Negotiation 358
Electronic Negotiations: Foundations, Systems, and Processes 359
Introduction 359
Negotiation Support and E-Negotiation Systems 360
Negotiation Support Systems 360
E-Negotiation System Definition 361
Functions 362
E-Negotiation Engineering 363
Socio-technical Systems 363
Domain Engineering 365
E-Negotiation Taxonomy 366
Montreal E-Negotiation Taxonomy 367
Phases and Key Constructs 368
Negotiation Constructs 368
Mechanisms 370
Protocols 371
Commercial Systems 372
Access Systems 373
E-Negotiation Tables 374
Negotiation Support 377
Teaching and Research Systems 379
Negotiation Tables 379
Support for E-Negotiation 380
Software Platforms for E-Negotiations 382
E-Negotiation Research 384
Research Findings 384
ENS Research Frameworks 386
Conclusions 388
References 388
The Adoption and Use of Negotiation Systems 391
Introduction 391
Literature Review 391
TAM and TAM2 392
Self-Efficacy 393
Diffusion of Innovation 394
Other Models 394
Affect in Negotiation and Decision-Making 396
The Conceptual Model 397
An Example 398
Methods 398
The Research Context 398
Measures 399
The SEM Model 400
Multiple Group Analysis 400
Goodness of Fit 401
Results 401
Preliminary Analyses 401
Test of the Measurement Model 401
Test of the Hypothesized Model 403
Summary and Conclusion 403
References 404
Support of Complex Electronic Negotiations 407
Introduction 407
State-of-the-Art 408
Background 409
Communication Theories 409
Speech Act Theory 409
The Theory of Communicative Action 409
Media Richness Theory 410
Document Management 410
Decision Support 410
Summary 411
Negoisst 411
Decision Support 411
Communication Management 412
Document Management 417
Selected Experimental Results 417
Negotiation Media 417
Communication Quality 418
Visualisation of Utilities 419
Conclusion 419
References 420
Online Dispute Resolution Services: Justice, Concepts and Challenges 422
Introduction 422
e-Disputes and e-Justice The Problem 423
Online Dispute Resolution Services A Potential Solution 424
The Big Picture Online Dispute Resolution Services and Negotiation Support Systems 424
Principle Matters Principle-Based Dispute Resolution Services 425
Classification of Online Dispute Resolution Services 427
Review of Existing Online Dispute Resolution Services 429
A Key Challenge: The Adoption of ODR Services by Users 429
Summary 431
References 431
Agent Reasoning in Negotiation 434
Introduction 434
Formal Negotiation Research: Different Perspectives 436
A Framework for Negotiation Reasoning 437
Procedures for Multi-issue Negotiation 438
Changing the Structure of the Negotiation Problem 440
Value Claiming and Value Creating 441
Fair Division 442
Persuasion for Conflict Resolution 442
Tactic Reasoning 443
Third Party Mediation 444
Agents for Decision Support 445
Conclusions 445
References 446
Index 449