Towards a Theory of Thinking (eBook)

0001085370.pdf 1
Anchor 1 5
Towards a Theory of Thinking 8
Structure of the Book 10
Part I: Perspectives on Thinking 10
Part II: Components of Thinking 11
Part III: Onto- and Phylogenetic Aspects 13
Part IV: Language, Emotion, Culture 15
Part V: Modeling and Neurobiological Approaches 17
0001087460.pdf 26
Chapter 1 1
0001085342.pdf 27
Problem Solving 27
1 Introduction 28
2 The Gestaltist Perspective 28
3 Information Processing Theory and the Problem Space Hypothesis 33
4 Challenge: Well-Structured Versus Ill-Structured Problems 36
5 Challenge: Insight Problem Solving 39
5.1 Definition of Insight 39
5.2 Nothing Special Account 40
5.3 Representational Change 41
5.4 An Integrative Perspective 42
6 Closing Remarks 43
References 43
0001085343.pdf 46
Heuristic Bias, Conflict, and Rationality in Decision-Making 46
1 Introduction 46
2 Conflict Detection Studies 48
2.1 To Detect or Not to Detect? 48
2.2 To the Brain and Beyond 51
2.3 The Effortless Nature of Conflict Detection 52
3 Implications for the Rationality Debate 53
4 Caveats and Conclusion 54
References 55
0001085344.pdf 57
Analogical Processes in Human Thinking and Learning 57
1 Introduction 57
2 Analogical Processes 58
2.1 Mapping 58
2.2 Structural Alignment in Similarity and Analogy 60
2.3 Systematicity 62
2.4 Evaluation 63
3 Learning 63
3.1 Schema Abstraction 64
3.2 Re-representation 65
4 Analogical Retrieval 66
5 Concluding Remarks 68
References 68
0001085345.pdf 71
A Gestalt Perspective on the Psychology of Thinking 71
1 Introduction 71
2 Some Basic Concepts in Gestalt Theory 72
3 Some Historical Background on Gestalt Theory 74
4 The Gestalt Approach to Thinking 75
5 Concluding Thoughts on the Gestalt Approach to Thinking 78
References 79
0001085346.pdf 81
Thought and Reality 81
1 Introduction 81
2 A Brief Summary of a Novel Account of Time and Reality 83
3 Human Thinking as an Adaptation to a Janus-Headed Reality 86
References 92
0001087251.pdf 93
0001085347.pdf 94
Categorization and Object Shape 94
1 Introduction 94
2 Form and Space 97
3 Recognition and Categorization Performance Depend on Spatial Transformations 104
4 Integrative Transformational Framework of Recognition and Categorization 110
5 Open Questions and Outlook 113
References 115
0001085348.pdf 123
Comparison 123
1 Introduction 123
2 Models of Similarity 125
2.1 Geometric Models and Multidimensional Scaling 126
2.2 Featural Models 128
2.3 Similarities Between Geometric and Feature-Based Models 130
2.4 Alignment-Based Models 132
2.5 Transformational Models 135
3 Conclusions 136
References 137
0001085349.pdf 142
Causal Thinking 142
1 Introduction 142
2 Causal-Model Theory: Beyond Covariations 143
2.1 Sensitivity to the Asymmetry of Causes and Effects 144
2.2 Predicting Outcomes of Hypothetical Observations Versus Hypothetical Interventions 146
2.2.1 Causal Reasoning in Nonhuman Animals 148
2.3 Estimating Causal Parameters 149
2.4 Limitations of Causal Reasoning 150
3 Inducing Causal Structures 150
4 Conclusion 151
References 152
0001085350.pdf 154
Conditionals: Their Meaning and Their use in Reasoning 154
1 Introduction 154
2 The Meaning of Conditionals 155
2.1 Mental Models 155
2.2 The Evidence 158
3 Inferences from Conditionals 159
3.1 Mental Models 160
3.2 The Probabilistic View 161
3.3 The Evidence: Reasoning from Conditionals 163
3.3.1 Patterns of Inference Endorsement 163
3.3.2 Content Effects 164
4 Conclusion 164
References 164
0001085351.pdf 166
Thinking and Memory 166
1 Introduction 166
2 Definitions and Classifications of Memory 167
3 Brain Structures Involved in Episodic Memory: A Brief Summary 170
4 The Association Between Thinking and Memory in Brain Damaged Patients 173
5 The Association Between Thinking and Memory in Neuroimaging Investigations 174
6 General Considerations 175
References 176
0001085352.pdf 180
Perception and the Brain 180
1 Introduction 181
2 Binocular Rivalry Experiments 181
3 Extracellular Recording in the Visual Cortex 183
4 Rivalry Related Tasks 190
5 Things We Learn and Things We Do Not Learn 191
6 Conclusion 193
References 194
0001087248.pdf 195
0001085353.pdf 196
A Developmental Perspective on Modularity 196
1 Introduction 196
2 Modularity, Evolution and Development 197
3 Gradual Developmental Process of Modularisation 198
4 A Concrete Example of Progressive Modularisation: Face Processing in Typically and Atypically Developing Populations 200
5 Concluding Thoughts 201
References 202
0001085354.pdf 205
Theory of Mind 205
1 Introduction 205
2 Development of a Theory of Mind 206
3 Theories 208
4 Neural Correlates 209
5 Theory of Mind and Language 210
6 Theory of Mind in Other Species and Robots 211
References 213
0001085355.pdf 218
The Development of Metacognitive Competencies 218
1 Introduction 218
2 Classic Research on the Development of Metamemory 220
2.1 Declarative Metamemory 220
2.2 Procedural Metamemory 220
2.3 Metamemory–Memory Relations 221
3 Development of Metacognitive Knowledge and “Theory of Mind” 221
3.1 Assessment of Children’s “Theory-of-Mind” 222
3.2 Links Between Theory of Mind and Metacognitive Knowledge 222
4 New Evidence Concerning Metacognitive Development in Childhood and Adolescence 223
4.1 The Development of Self-Monitoring and Self-Control 224
4.2 Monitoring Skills in Children 224
4.3 The Relation Between Monitoring and Control Processes in Children 225
5 The Importance of Metacognition for Education 226
References 227
0001085356.pdf 230
Understanding Apes to Understand Humans: The Case of Object–Object Relations 230
1 Introduction 230
2 Why Study Animal Cognition? 231
3 Comparing Human and Animal Cognition 232
4 Object–Object Relations and Causal Knowledge 234
4.1 Inferential Reasoning 234
4.2 Two Additional Domains: Weight and Support 236
4.3 Tool-Use 238
5 The Nature of Causal and Arbitrary Relations 240
5.1 On the Epigenesis of Causal Relations 241
6 Conclusion and Future Directions 243
References 243
0001087249.pdf 246
0001085357.pdf 247
Socializing Cognition 247
1 Distributing Cognition Across People and the World 248
1.1 Distributed Representations 248
1.2 Coupled Systems 249
2 Emerging Cognition: Social Brains and Social Norms 251
2.1 Evolutionary Approaches 251
2.2 Cultural Approaches 252
3 Aligning Cognition: Joint Control of Perception–Action Links 253
3.1 Ideomotor Theories and the Mirror System 253
3.1.1 Mimicry 254
3.1.2 Imitation 255
3.2 Joint Action 256
3.2.1 Co-representation 256
3.2.2 Coordination 257
4 Conclusion and Outlook 258
References 260
0001085358.pdf 265
Thinking and Language 265
1 Semiotic Bridges 265
2 Levels of Language Structure 267
3 Five Logophonic Pillars 268
4 Language and Culture 272
References 273
0001085359.pdf 274
Thinking and Emotion: Affective Modulation of Cognitive Processing Modes 274
1 Introduction 275
2 Antagonistic Adaptive Functions and Complementary Modes of Thinking 276
3 Theoretical Views on the Affective Modulation of Cognitive Processes 277
4 Selective Review of Evidence for the Affective Modulation of Complementary Modes of Thinking 278
4.1 Affective Modulation of Creative Problem Solving and Generative Thought 279
4.2 Affective Modulation of Semantic Associations 280
4.3 Affective Modulation of the Scope of Selective Attention 282
4.4 Affective Modulation of Cognitive Control 283
5 Conclusions and Open Questions 285
References 287
0001085360.pdf 291
Cultural Differences in Thinking Styles 291
1 Introduction 291
2 Cultural Differences in Perceptual and Attentional Processing 292
3 Neural Basis of Cultural Specific Cognitive Styles 296
4 Conclusion 299
References 300
0001087250.pdf 301
0001085361.pdf 302
Natural Selection in the Brain 302
1 Introduction 303
2 How Could Neuronal Natural Selection Work? 306
2.1 Synapses 307
2.2 Groups of Synapses 310
2.3 Patterns of Bistable Neuronal Activity 314
3 Natural Selection in Comparison with Other (Neuronal) Stochastic Search Algorithms 317
3.1 Neuronal Selectionism 317
3.2 Reinforcement Learning Algorithms 320
3.3 Other Action Selection Approaches 321
4 How is an Initial Population of Neuronal Representations Chosen? 322
5 On What Basis Are Neuronal Replicators Selected? 322
6 How Can Variability Be Structured? 323
7 Cognitive Roles for Neuronal Replicators 325
7.1 Causal Inference by Topology Copying 325
7.2 Heuristic Search in Insight Problems and Working Memory Tasks 326
7.3 Memory Consolidation 327
8 Conclusions 328
Acknowledgement 328
References 328
0001085362.pdf 334
Value and Self-Referential Control: Necessary Ingredients for the Autonomous Development of Flexible Intelligence 334
1 Introduction 334
2 Value and Self-Referential Control 336
2.1 Elements of Innate Knowledge 337
2.2 Self-Organization of Acquired Knowledge 339
2.3 Active Exploration, Expectation and Surprise 341
2.4 Self-Referential Control 342
3 Conclusions 343
References 344
0001085363.pdf 347
Cortical Connectivity: The Infrastructure of Thoughts 347
1 Thinking: The Associational Nature of Thinking 347
2 Neuronal Assemblies: An Operational Definition 348
3 Cortico–Cortical Connections: Axonal Geometries Elementary Axonal Computations
4 Physiological Analysis of a Visual, Bihemispheric Neuronal Assembly: The Role of Axonal Geometries 350
5 Implications of Principles of Brain Organization for Thinking: Cortico–Cortical Connections May Constrain and Channel Bot 352
References 354
0001085364.pdf 357
Models as Tools to Aid Thinking 357
1 Introduction 357
2 Models and Thinking Economy: What Models Can Do for Us 358
3 Major Dimensions of Modeling 360
4 Modeling and Feature Selection 361
4.1 The Power of Mappings 362
4.2 Linear Versus Nonlinear Models 364
5 Beyond Mappings: Dynamical Systems 366
6 Some Examples of Dynamical systems 368
7 From Deterministic to Stochastic Models 371
8 Coping with Uncertainty 372
9 Optimal Inference 373
10 From Modeling to Bayesian Learning 375
11 Maximum Likelihood Principle 376
12 Learning, Optimization and Risk Minimization 377
13 Bias, Complexity, and Generalization 378
14 Limits of Modeling 380
15 Concluding Remarks 382
References 383