Conservation Monitoring in Freshwater Habitats (eBook)

Contents 6
Contributors 10
Chapter 1 16
Conservation Monitoring in Freshwater Habitats: An Introduction 16
Introduction 16
Survey, Surveillance and Monitoring 17
A Model for Conservation Management and Monitoring 18
Developing a Monitoring Project 19
Key Steps in Developing a Monitoring Project 19
Identifying the Priority for Conservation 19
Collating Existing Research, Survey and Surveillance Information 20
Developing a Conservation Strategy 20
Developing Site-Specific Condition Indicators 20
The Importance of Unambiguous Definitions 22
Box 1.1 The definition of a ‘bank’ developed for use in SERCON river evaluations 22
Box 1.2 All of the italicised terms in this target (and definition) for siltation in the JNCC rivers guidance are open to obser 23
Deciding Where to Monitor 23
Collecting the Monitoring Data 24
Feeding Back into Management 24
Safeguarding the Monitoring Data 24
The Naturalness Issue 24
Finally… 26
References 26
Chapter 2 27
Options for Planning Management 27
Introduction 27
Learn to Plan 28
A Strategy for the Bigger Planning Decisions 29
Understand Your Site 29
Nest Your Conservation Plans 29
Consider Your Options 30
Face Up To Risks and Assumptions 31
A Word About Factors 31
Conclusions 32
References 32
Chapter 3 34
The Water Framework Directive and the Habitats and Birds Directives 34
Background 34
Which Natura 2000 Protected Areas Are Relevant for the WFD? 35
What Are the Relevant Standards and Objectives for Natura 2000 Protected Areas in the WFD? 36
Application of the Derogations 37
The Programme of Measures 38
Monitoring for Natura 2000 Water Dependent Protected Areas in the WFD 39
Summary and Remaining Challenges 40
References 40
Chapter 4 42
Freshwater Mammals as Indicators of Habitat Condition 42
Introduction 42
Mammals as Indicators 42
Freshwater Mammals 43
Indicating What? 44
Alien Species 44
European Beaver 46
Pyrenean Desman 47
European Water Shrew 47
Mediterranean Water Shrew 48
Pond Bat and Daubenton’s Bat 48
Long-Fingered Bat 49
Water Vole 49
Southern Water Vole 49
European Mink 50
Otter 50
Ringed Seal 51
Brief Summary 51
Acknowledgements 52
References 52
Chapter 5 54
Waterbirds as Bioindicators of Environmental Conditions 54
Introduction 54
Waterbirds as Bioindicators of Environmental Conditions 55
Limitations on the Use of Waterbirds as Bioindicators 56
Which Indicators Are More Relevant? 58
Conclusions 59
References 59
Chapter 6 62
Monitoring Fish Populations in River SACs 62
Introduction 62
Monitoring Protocols for SAC Rivers 62
Sampling Procedure 63
Distribution Range 63
Number of Sites and Frequency of Sampling 66
Fish Data Collection 66
Assessment of Condition 67
References 70
Chapter 7 72
Assessment of Aquatic Invertebrates 72
Introduction 72
Broad Indices 72
Directed Investigations 76
Sampling Tools 76
Family or Species Level? 77
Sampling Effort 77
Specialised or General Search? 78
Quality or Quantity? 78
When to Sample? 79
Analysis of Results 80
Outlook 80
References 81
Chapter 8 82
Riverine Plants as Biological Indicators 82
Introduction 82
Pollution Monitoring 84
Box 8.1 Aquatic vascular plants as indicators of water pollutionClarke and Wharton (2001) provide an excellent review of stud 84
Conclusions and Ways Forward 88
Box 8.2 Aquatic bryophytes as indicators of water pollution 89
References 90
Chapter 9 93
Phytoplankton (Toxic Algae) as Biological Indicators 93
Introduction 93
The Experience of the Early Warning Network for Preventing Mass Wildlife Mortalities as a Consequence of Cyanobacteria Blooms i 94
The Design and Implementation of a Monitoring Programme to Detect Cyanobacteria Blooms 95
References 98
Chapter 10 99
Monitoring Biological Invasions in Freshwater Habitats 99
Introduction 99
Invasive Species as Ecological Indicators 100
Other Reasons for Monitoring Invasive Species 101
Early Warning System 104
Dynamics of Biological Invasions 104
Linking Invasions to Impacts and Habitat Resistance to Invasion 104
Identification of Synergies with Environmental Global Change 105
Assessment of Habitat Restoration After Direct Management 105
Reinforcement of Public Outreach and Environmental Education 105
Designing an Appropriate Monitoring Scheme 106
Conclusions 106
References 107
Chapter 11 110
Threats to River Habitats and Associated Plants and Animals 110
Introduction 110
Hydromorphology 111
Water Quality 114
Alien Species 115
Discussion 117
Yin and Yang 118
References 119
Chapter 12 121
The Development and Application of Mean Trophic Rank (MTR) 121
Introduction 121
What is MTR and How Does it Work? 123
Applications of MTR 125
The European Star Project 127
The Polish MTR System 128
Conclusions 129
References 129
Chapter 13 131
Monitoring the Ranunculion Habitat on the River Itchen: Practical Application and Constraints 131
Introduction 131
The Study 132
MTR 135
Conservation Value 137
Diversity 137
Rarity 139
Ranunculus Subgenus Batrachium 139
Conclusions 140
Box 13.1 For the purposes of analysis, the following notes must be taken into account 133
Box 13.2 Decisions relating to the analysis of data 134
Box 13.3 The “Ratcliffe” criteria 137
References 141
Chapter 14 143
Observer Variation in River Macrophyte Surveys 143
Introduction 143
The Sampling Trial Locations 143
The 500 m Section at St Catherine’s Bridge 143
The 100 m Section at Wolf’s Castle 144
Methods 145
Issues Associated with Collating the Data 145
Results 146
Detection Rates for Aquatic and Emergent Plants in the 500 m Section 146
Detection Rates for Aquatic and Emergent Plants in the 100 m Section 146
Cover Estimates 146
Cover Estimates for Aquatic Species in the 500 m Section 146
Cover Estimates for Aquatic Species in the 100 m Section 147
Variation in the Time Spent Collecting Data 149
Discussion 150
Surveyor Performance in Recording Species Diversity 150
Surveyor Performance in Recording Cover Estimates 150
Conclusions 151
References 152
Chapter 15 153
The Implications of Observer Variation for Existing Macrophyte Recording Methods 153
Introduction 153
The Implications of Observer Variation for Common Standards Monitoring (CSM) River Macrophyte Data 153
Assessment of River Type 154
Cover Estimates in CSM 155
CSM Assessment Results 156
The Impact of Observer Variation on LEAFPACS Data 156
The Implications of Observer Variation for MTR Data 158
MTR Data for the 100 m Section at Wolf’s Castle 159
Discussion on the Impact of Observer Variation on MTR Results 160
The Strengths and Weaknesses of the MTR Method 160
Summary 161
Recommendations for Minimising Observer Variation in River Projects 162
References 164
Chapter 16 165
Unitisation of Protected Rivers 165
Introduction 165
The Basis for Setting Unit Boundaries 166
Artificial Impacts on the Site 166
Variation in Natural Ecosystems Across the Site 167
Administrative Factors 170
Unitisation for Monitoring and Reporting 171
Conclusions 171
References 172
Chapter 17 174
Monitoring the Ranunculion Habitat of the Western Cleddau: A Case Study 174
Introduction 174
Defining the Ranunculion Habitat of the Western Cleddau 175
Typical Species Associated with the Ranunculion of the Western Cleddau 176
The Baseline Monitoring 178
Sampling the Vegetation 178
Sampling for the Typical Species 179
Results 180
Discussion 181
Rationale Underpinning the Condition Indicators 181
References 183
Chapter 18 184
Monitoring of Cryphaea lamyana on the Afon Teifi SSSI/SAC: A Case Study 184
Introduction 184
Methods 188
Baseline Survey 188
Monitoring 188
Results 189
The Baseline Survey Results 189
The Monitoring Plot Results 189
Saxicolous Colonies: Cenarth 190
Saxicolous Colonies: Llandysul 192
Epiphytic Colonies: Cenarth 192
Epiphytic Colonies: Llandysul 193
The Condition Indicators 194
Rationale Underpinning the Condition Indicators 194
Discussion 195
References 196
Chapter 19 197
Monitoring Sea Lamprey Petromyzon marinus Ammocoetes in SAC Rivers: A Case Study on the River Wye 197
Introduction 197
Study Area and Development of Monitoring Programme 198
Monitoring Targets 198
Materials and Methods 200
Results 201
Density Estimates 202
Size Structure 202
Discussion 203
Habitat Requirements 205
Abundance Classification 205
Population Demographic Structure 206
Monitoring Issues 206
References 209
Chapter 20 211
Monitoring Juvenile Atlantic Salmon and Sea Trout in the River Sävarån, Northern Sweden 211
Introduction 211
The Study Site 212
Methods 212
Smolt Migration: Abundance and Timing 212
Genetic and Age Structure Monitoring 214
Parr Density 215
Results 215
Smolt Migration Abundance and Timing 215
Genetic and Age Structure Monitoring 216
Parr Density 217
Discussion 219
References 221
Chapter 21 223
Shad Monitoring in the Afon Tywi SAC: A Case Study 223
Introduction 223
Pre-existing Survey Information 225
The Generic Conservation Targets 226
Methods 226
Results 228
Discussion 231
References 233
Chapter 22 235
Monitoring the Effects of Acidification and Liming on Water Quality in a Boreal Stream: The River Stridbäcken in Northern Swed 235
Introduction 235
The River Stridbäcken 235
Liming 237
Liming Methods 237
Chemical and Biological Objectives 238
Design of the Monitoring Programme 238
Monitoring the Water Chemistry 238
Sampling Frequency 238
Sampling Stations 240
Analyses 240
Biological Monitoring 240
Results 241
Water Chemistry 241
Benthic Fauna 241
Fish Fauna 244
The Situation Upstream of the Lime Doser 244
Discussion 246
References 248
Chapter 23 250
A Baseline for Monitoring the Freshwater Natura 2000 Vegetation of the Teifi Pools (Afon Teifi SAC), Wales 250
Introduction 250
Methods 252
Survey and Monitoring Needs 252
Development of a Survey Approach 253
Survey Methodology 253
Results 255
Discussion 258
Applicability of the Survey Approach Taken 258
Site Management Issues 259
Condition Assessment of the European Features Within the Afon Teifi SAC 261
References 263
Chapter 24 264
Aquatic Plant Monitoring in the Broads 264
Introduction 264
Survey 265
Transect Survey – 26 Year Dataset (1983–2008) 265
Point Survey – 13 Year Dataset (1996–2008) 267
SCUBA Survey – 13 Year Dataset (1994–2006) 267
Hydroacoustic Survey 267
Monitoring Targets 267
Methods 269
Transect Survey 269
Point Survey 270
SCUBA Survey 270
Results 271
Transect Survey 271
Hickling Broad – Upper Thurne Valley 272
Barton Broad – Ant Valley 272
Cockshoot Broad – Bure Valley 273
Point Survey 275
SCUBA Survey 275
Discussion 277
Transect Survey 277
Point Survey 278
SCUBA Survey 278
Hydroacoustic Survey 278
References 278
Chapter 25 280
Monitoring Stoneworts Chara spp. at Bosherston Lakes 280
Introduction 280
The Distribution of Chara hispida at Bosherston Lakes 282
Survey History – the Development of the Monitoring Methods 284
Transects 284
Underwater Survey 284
Method Refinements 285
Monitoring Targets 286
A “Vision” for Chara hispida Within Bosherston Lakes 287
Rationale Underpinning the Condition Indicators 287
Results 288
Discussion 291
References 292
Chapter 26 294
Monitoring Wetland Mammals: An Ecological Case Study 294
Introduction 294
Current Techniques Used to Monitor Water Vole Populations 295
Study Site 295
Aim 296
Methods 296
Vegetation Surveys 297
Live Trapping 297
Analysis 298
Results 299
Populations 299
Dominant Vegetation Types 301
Discussion 301
Water Vole Activity in DVTs 303
Recommendations for Conservation Management and Monitoring 304
Rationale Underpinning the Condition Indicator Table 304
Water Vole Field Survey Recommendations 306
References 308
Chapter 27 309
Ringed Seals in the Gulf of Bothnia 309
Introduction 309
Seals in Sweden 309
The Ringed Seal 310
The Gulf of Bothnia 312
Changing Focus 312
Key Factors for the Management of Ringed Seals 313
Conservation Status 313
Lack of Knowledge 314
Damage to Fisheries 314
International Population 314
Objectives for Our Work 314
International Obligations 314
National Targets 315
Regional Necessities 315
Ongoing Activities 315
Population Surveillance 316
Survey of Health Status 317
By-Catches 317
Damage to Fisheries 317
Attitudes 317
Available Information 318
Population Size 318
Distribution of Breeding Habitat 319
Health Status 319
By-Catches 320
Damage to Fisheries 320
Attitudes 321
Discussion 321
Unclear Objectives 321
Unsophisticated Political Ideas 322
Current and Future Activities 322
Activities to Be Continued 322
Activities to Be Developed 322
Activities to Be Started 323
References 323
Chapter 28 326
An Integrated Monitoring Programme for Doñana Natural Space: The Set-Up and Implementation 326
Donana Natural Space – A Brief Overview 326
Historical Monitoring Initiatives and Gaps in Knowledge 327
The Framework for an Integrated Monitoring Programme: Policy and Opportunity 329
Programme Implementation: Protocol Validation and Arising Issues 332
Automatic Monitoring and Data-Quality Assessment: Enhancing the Programme 334
Data Access and Publishing 335
Success Stories on Data Use for Research and Management 336
Donana LTSER Platform in the ILTER and LTER Europe Networks 336
References 338
Chapter 29 339
Monitoring Aquatic Ecosystems at Doñana Natural Space 339
Introduction 339
Background on Groups Selected for Biomonitoring 340
Aquatic Vegetation 341
Benthic Macroinvertebrates 341
Fish Communities 342
Monitoring an Unpredictable Environment 343
Sampling Protocol 345
Preliminary Results: The Case for a Long-Term Monitoring Programme 346
References 353
Chapter 30 356
Endangered Waterbirds at Doñana Natural Space 356
Background Information 356
The Methods 359
Results by Species 359
Marbled Teal 359
Ferruginous Duck 361
White-Headed Duck 362
Bittern 363
Squacco Heron 364
Black Stork 366
Red-Knobbed Coot 368
Conclusions 369
References 370
Chapter 31 373
Monitoring Marsh Dynamics Through Remote Sensing 373
The Value of Remote Sensing Images 373
Remote Sensing Limitations 375
Remote Sensing for Wetlands 376
Long-Term Monitoring of Doñana Marshland Through Remote Sensing 377
Flood Mapping, Hydroperiod and Flooding Regime 378
Water Turbidity and Depth 380
Monitoring the Spread of an Aquatic Alien Species 382
Discussion 383
References 384
Chapter 32 385
New Technologies for Long-Term Biodiversity Monitoring 385
Introduction 385
Obtaining Quality Data 385
New Technologies 386
The Starting Point 388
Planning for Data Transfer to a Central Server 391
Data Capture 391
Data Consolidation 391
Data Exploitation 392
The Application of Our Design in International Monitoring Networks 393
References 395
Index 405