Xenobiotics in the Urban Water Cycle (eBook)
XIV, 507 Seiten
Springer Netherland (Verlag)
978-90-481-3509-7 (ISBN)
Despo Fatta-Kassinos received her Diploma in Chemical Engineering from the National Technical University of Athens, Greece and her M.Sc. in Environmental Management from the European Association for Environmental Management and Education (University of Athens, Greece - Joint Research Center, Ispra, Italy). She received her Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the National Technical University of Athens, Greece. She is a faculty member of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering of the University of Cyprus since 2003. She is the head of GAIA, Laboratory of Environmental Engineering where a number of scientific projects related to the treatment of xenobiotic compounds in aqueous matrices are being realised. She is a reviewer for several national and European funding bodies. Her principal research interests are in the field of water and wastewater treatment systems, monitoring of environmental pollution and environmental risk assessment. The main focus of her research is the development of advanced oxidation and other combined processes for the treatment of wastewater intended for reuse applications.
Kai Bester studied Chemistry and got his diploma (masters) degree from Hamburg University. He finished his PhD in Marine Environmental and Analytical Chemistry at Hamburg University 1995. Kai Bester worked as scientists at RWTH Aachen, EU Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (EC-JRC-IRMM) Geel, Belgium and University of Duisburg Essen. He achieved Habilitation in 2005 at the university Duisburg Essen. He is currently working at Aalborg University section for Biotechnology, Chemistry and Environmental Engineering as well as Institute for Environmental Analytical Chemistry University Duisburg-Essen. His main focus is fate and effect of xenobiotic compounds (personal care compounds, bactericides, pharmaceuticals, biocides, flame retardants etc.) in aquatic ecosystems and technical applications.
Klaus Kümmerer studied chemistry in Würzburg and Tübingen. He received his Diploma in Chemistry and a PhD in Environmental and Analytical Chemistry from the University of Tübingen. He was head of the Chemistry Department at the Institute of Applied Ecology in Freiburg before he joined the University of Freiburg where he is currently head of the Section of Applied Environmental Research at the Department of Environmental Health Sciences of the Medical Centre Freiburg. In 1999 he became an Associate Professor in 2002 he was appointed Professor. He was visiting professor at the Case Western reserve University and has on going co-operations with researchers in Brazil, USA and several European countries. He was reviewer for several international funding bodies and is on board of several national and international committees and the editorial board of several scientific journals. He began research into xenobiotics in the water cycle in 1986 with a focus on pharmaceuticals, disinfectants and diagnostics since 1992. Other main fields of research are sustainable chemistry and sustainable pharmacy, benign chemicals and structure activity relationships
The history of chemistry and pharmaceutical sciences is an impressive success story. The products of chemical and pharmaceutical industries are present eve- where in our everyday life. They help to pursue the modern way of living and they contribute to our high standard of living and safety, mobility, communication te- nologies, food, health, textiles and drinking water treatment, among many others. These products are labeled under the categories: pharmaceuticals, pesticides, det- gents, fertilizers, dyes, paints, preservatives, food additives and personal care pr- ucts, to name a few. Within these categories, groups of chemicals with similar structures can be found. However, often groups of chemicals with very different structures belong to the same category. For a long time the production of chemicals and pharmaceuticals, their usage and application was connected with the heavy pollution of the environment and serious health effects. At the end of the last century, it was realised that the products of che- cal and pharmaceutical industries are presenting a new type of environmental pol- tion that may also pose a health risk to the consumer. Most chemicals are used in so-called open applications in excessive amounts e. g. for personal care, hygiene, plant protection, health and in textiles. In many cases such as scents, detergents, textile chemicals, surface disinfectants, pesticides and others it is unavoidable that these chemicals are released into the environment according to their intended use.
Despo Fatta-Kassinos received her Diploma in Chemical Engineering from the National Technical University of Athens, Greece and her M.Sc. in Environmental Management from the European Association for Environmental Management and Education (University of Athens, Greece – Joint Research Center, Ispra, Italy). She received her Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the National Technical University of Athens, Greece. She is a faculty member of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering of the University of Cyprus since 2003. She is the head of GAIA, Laboratory of Environmental Engineering where a number of scientific projects related to the treatment of xenobiotic compounds in aqueous matrices are being realised. She is a reviewer for several national and European funding bodies. Her principal research interests are in the field of water and wastewater treatment systems, monitoring of environmental pollution and environmental risk assessment. The main focus of her research is the development of advanced oxidation and other combined processes for the treatment of wastewater intended for reuse applications. Kai Bester studied Chemistry and got his diploma (masters) degree from Hamburg University. He finished his PhD in Marine Environmental and Analytical Chemistry at Hamburg University 1995. Kai Bester worked as scientists at RWTH Aachen, EU Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (EC-JRC-IRMM) Geel, Belgium and University of Duisburg Essen. He achieved Habilitation in 2005 at the university Duisburg Essen. He is currently working at Aalborg University section for Biotechnology, Chemistry and Environmental Engineering as well as Institute for Environmental Analytical Chemistry University Duisburg-Essen. His main focus is fate and effect of xenobiotic compounds (personal care compounds, bactericides, pharmaceuticals, biocides, flame retardants etc.) in aquatic ecosystems and technical applications. Klaus Kümmerer studied chemistry in Würzburg and Tübingen. He received his Diploma in Chemistry and a PhD in Environmental and Analytical Chemistry from the University of Tübingen. He was head of the Chemistry Department at the Institute of Applied Ecology in Freiburg before he joined the University of Freiburg where he is currently head of the Section of Applied Environmental Research at the Department of Environmental Health Sciences of the Medical Centre Freiburg. In 1999 he became an Associate Professor in 2002 he was appointed Professor. He was visiting professor at the Case Western reserve University and has on going co-operations with researchers in Brazil, USA and several European countries. He was reviewer for several international funding bodies and is on board of several national and international committees and the editorial board of several scientific journals. He began research into xenobiotics in the water cycle in 1986 with a focus on pharmaceuticals, disinfectants and diagnostics since 1992. Other main fields of research are sustainable chemistry and sustainable pharmacy, benign chemicals and structure activity relationships
Foreword 6
Scope of the Book 8
Contents 11
Chapter 1 16
Quantitative Mass Flows of Selected Xenobiotics in Urban Waters and Waste Water Treatment Plants 16
1.1 Introduction 17
1.2 Results 17
1.2.1 Personal Care Compounds 17
1.2.1.1 Fragrances 17
1.2.1.2 Household-Bactericides 23
1.2.2 Organobromine and Organophosphate Flame Retardants 23
1.2.2.1 Organobromine Flame Retardants 24
1.2.2.2 Organophosphate Flame Retardants 25
1.2.3 Plasticizers 26
1.2.3.1 Organophosphates 26
1.2.3.2 Phthalates 26
1.2.4 Nonylphenol and Nonylphenol Ethoxylates 27
1.2.5 Benzotriazoles 28
1.2.6 Mycotoxins 29
1.2.7 Isoflavones 31
1.3 Conclusions 32
References 32
Chapter 2 40
Identifying and Classifying the Sources and Uses of Xenobiotics in Urban Environments 40
2.1 Introduction 40
2.2 Definitions of Key Terms 42
2.2.1 Sources and Uses 42
2.2.2 Emissions and Releases 44
2.3 Uses of Xenobiotics 45
2.3.1 Classifying the Uses of Xenobiotics 45
2.3.2 Archetypes of Xenobiotic Substance Use 47
2.4 Sources of Xenobiotics 48
2.4.1 Classifying the Sources of Xenobiotics 48
2.4.2 Archetypes of Xenobiotic Sources 54
2.5 Source Tracking and Identification 57
2.5.1 The Literature 57
2.5.2 Database Mining 57
2.5.3 Chemical Screening and Monitoring 58
2.5.4 Questionnaires/Marketing Surveys 58
2.5.5 Official Statistical Records 58
2.5.6 Green Procurement Information Programmes 59
2.5.7 Forensic Source Tracking 59
2.6 Conclusions 60
References 60
Chapter 3 64
Illicit Drugs in the Urban Water Cycle 64
3.1 Illicit Drugs in Water Resources 64
3.1.1 Wastewaters 65
3.1.2 Surface Waters 69
3.1.3 Drinking Water 76
3.2 Consumption Estimation 77
3.2.1 Cocaine 77
3.2.2 Heroin 81
3.2.3 Other Illicit Drugs 81
3.3 Concluding Remarks 82
References 83
Chapter 4 85
Precious Metals in Urban Aquatic Systems: Platinum, Palladium and Rhodium: Sources, Occurrence, Bioavailability and Effects 85
4.1 Introduction 85
4.2 Sources 86
4.3 PGE in Urban Aquatic Habitats 87
4.4 Uptake and Bioaccumulation of PGE by Aquatic Organims 90
4.5 Toxicological Effects of PGE on Aquatic Organisms 93
4.6 Conclusions 94
References 95
Chapter 5 99
Fate and Effects of Little Investigated Scents in the Aquatic Environment 99
5.1 Introduction 99
5.2 Sources and Use 101
5.2.1 Natural Sources and Roles 101
5.2.2 Anthropogenic Use 103
5.2.3 Introduction into the Environment 104
5.3 Fate in the Environment 107
5.4 Anthropogenic Infochemicals, Application of Infochemicals and the Infochemical Effect 107
5.5 Regulation 108
5.5.1 Europe 108
5.5.2 United States of America 109
5.5.3 Manufacturers’ Self-Control 109
5.6 Conclusion 110
References 110
Chapter 6 113
Sources and Occurrence of Cyanotoxins Worldwide1 113
6.1 Introduction 114
6.2 Sources and Occurrence of Cyanotoxins in North America, the Arctic and Antarctica 114
6.2.1 General 114
6.2.2 Sources and Occurrence of Cyanotoxins in the Great Lakes 117
6.2.3 Prevalence of Cyanotoxins in Florida 119
6.3 Sources and Occurrence of Cyanotoxins in Europe and the Middle East 122
6.4 Sources and Occurrence of Cyanotoxins in Asia and Australia 125
6.5 Sources and Occurrence of Cyanotoxins in South America 127
6.6 Sources and Occurrence of Cyanotoxins in Africa 128
6.7 Conclusions 133
References 133
Chapter 7 140
Occurrence and Measurements of Organic Xenobiotic Compounds in Harbour and Coastal Sediments 140
7.1 Introduction 141
7.2 Source, Transport and Properties of Main Xenobiotic Compounds Detected in Marine Sediments 142
7.2.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) 142
7.2.2 Persistent Organic Pollutants 146
7.2.3 Surfactants 146
7.2.4 Organotin Compounds 148
7.2.5 Pharmaceuticals 148
7.3 Legislative Aspects 149
7.4 Analytical Determination of Main Xenobiotics in Marine Sediments 150
7.5 Strategies for Minimizing Risk 151
7.6 Conclusions and Outlook 152
References 152
Chapter 8 157
Determination of Sources and Emissions of Persistent Organic Contaminants by Means of Sewage Sludge: Results from a Monitorin 157
8.1 Introduction 158
8.2 Materials and Methods 159
8.2.1 Compounds Analyzed 159
8.2.2 Sampling and Analytical Methods 159
8.2.3 Determination of the Specific Loads 161
8.3 Results and Discussion 161
8.3.1 Concentrations of Organic Pollutants in Sewage Sludge 161
8.3.2 Specific Loads of the Compounds and Determination of the Main Pollutants Sources 162
8.4 Conclusions 166
References 166
Chapter 9 169
Metabolic and Co-metabolic Degradation of Industrially Important Chlorinated Organics Under Aerobic Conditions 169
9.1 Introduction 169
9.2 Metabolic Removal of Chlorinated Organics in Aerobic Systems 171
9.2.1 Aliphatic Chlorinated Hydrocarbons 171
9.2.2 Aromatic Chlorinated Hydrocarbons 171
9.3 Co-metabolic Removal of Chlorinated Organics in Aerobic Systems 172
9.3.1 Basic Mechanisms in Aerobic Co-metabolism 172
9.3.2 Aerobic Co-metabolism Using Phenol, Toluene, Propane and Other Organics As Primary Substrates 174
9.3.3 Aerobic Co-metabolism Using Methane As Primary Substrate 175
9.3.4 Aerobic Co-metabolism using Ammonium as Primary Substrate 176
9.4 Bioremediation of Chlorinated Organic Compounds 177
9.4.1 Types of Bioremediation 177
9.4.2 Mechanisms of Biological Removal in Natural and Enhanced Bioremediation 178
9.4.3 Case Studies on Aerobic Bioremediation of Contaminated Sites for Removal of Chlorinated Organics 181
References 183
Chapter 10 187
Photochemical Transformation of Pharmaceuticals in the Aquatic Environment: Reaction Pathways and Intermediates 187
10.1 Introduction 187
Chapter 11 203
The Challenge of the Identification and Quantification of Transformation Products in the Aquatic Environment Using High Resol 203
11.1 Introduction 204
11.2 Case Studies for Identification of Transformation Products by Different High Resolution Mass Spectrometric Techniques 208
11.2.1 Case Study 1: Identification of a Biotransformation Product of the Pharmaceutical Diclofenac in Wastewater by Ultra Pe 208
11.2.2 Case Study 2: Identification of the Human Pharmaceutical Metabolite N-Acetyl-4-Aminoantipyrine by Liquid Chromatograph 211
11.2.3 Case Study 3: Identification of A Transformation Product of the Pesticide Chloridazon in Groundwater by Liquid Chromat 213
11.3 Conclusions 216
References 216
Chapter 12 220
Transport and Fate of Xenobiotics in the Urban Water Cycle: Studies in Halle/Saale and Leipzig (Germany) 220
12.1 Introduction 221
12.2 Investigations in the Cities Halle/Saale and Leipzig (Germany) 222
12.2.1 Case Study: City of Halle/Saale 223
12.2.2 Case Study: City of Leipzig 228
12.3 Summary and Conclusions 231
References 232
Chapter 13 234
Pharmaceutical Contaminants in Urban Water Cycles: A Discussion of Novel Concepts for Environmental Risk Assessment 234
13.1 Introduction 235
13.2 The Current Approach: ERA Based on PECs and Acute/Chronic Toxicity PNECS 236
13.3 Novel Approaches for a Tailored Risk Assessment of Pharmaceuticals 239
13.3.1 Using Mammalian Effect Data to Generate Alerts for Potential Effects in Fish 239
13.3.2 Exploring Molecular Target Information for Effect Assessment 241
13.3.3 Prediction of Adverse Long-Term Effects from Alternative Short-Term Tests 242
13.3.4 Identification of the Mode of Action for ERA 244
13.3.5 Prediction of Effects by QSARs 245
13.4 Conclusion 246
References 247
Chapter 14 251
Hydroxy Benzoate Preservatives (Parabens) in the Environment: Data for Environmental Toxicity Assessment 251
14.1 Introduction 251
14.2 Materials and Methods 253
14.2.1 Chemicals 253
14.2.2 Bioassays for Global Toxicity 253
14.2.3 Bioassays for Estrogenicity 254
14.2.4 Experimental Approach to Mixture 254
14.3 Results and Discussion 254
14.3.1 Toxicity Studies of Individual Paraben 254
14.3.2 Estrogenicity Studies 257
14.3.2.1 Individual Parabens 257
14.3.2.2 Binary Mixtures 258
14.4 Conclusions 260
References 261
Chapter 15 265
Efficiency of Removal of Compounds with Estrogenic Activity During Wastewater Treatment: Effects of Various Removal Techniques 265
15.1 Introduction 266
15.2 Sampling Sites and Sampling Details 268
15.2.1 Selected STPs 268
15.2.2 Sampling 269
15.3 Analysis 270
15.3.1 General 270
15.3.2 Determination of Estrogenic Activity by ER-CALUX 270
15.3.2.1 Sample Preparation for ER-CALUX 270
15.3.2.2 ER-CALUX 273
15.3.3 Chemical Analysis of Natural and Synthetic Estrogenic Hormones 273
15.3.3.1 Sample Preparation and Cleanup for Chemical Analysis 273
15.3.3.2 Chemical Analysis 275
15.3.4 Quantitative Analysis of NP and NP Ethoxylates 275
15.4 Results 276
15.4.1 General 276
15.4.2 Natural and Synthetic Estrogenic Hormones 276
15.4.3 BPA 279
15.4.4 NP and Ethoxylates 280
15.4.5 ER-CALUX 281
15.5 Discussion and Conclusions 282
References 284
Chapter 16 287
Criteria for Designing Sewage Treatment Plants for Enhanced Removal of Organic Micropollutants 287
16.1 Types of Organic Micropollutants, Physico-chemical Properties and Biodegradability 288
16.1.1 Types of Organic Micropollutants 289
16.1.2 Physico-chemical Properties and Biodegradability 291
16.1.2.1 Volatility 291
16.1.2.2 Acidity 291
16.1.2.3 Lipophilicity 291
16.1.2.4 Sorption Potential 293
16.1.2.5 Biodegradability 293
16.2 Removal Mechanisms in Sewage Treatment Plants 293
16.2.1 Sorption 294
16.2.2 Biodegradation 294
16.2.3 Chemical Transformation 294
16.3 Factors Affecting Removal of Different Types of Compounds 295
16.3.1 Use of Additives (e.g. Coagulants, Activated Carbon) 295
16.3.2 Temperature 296
16.3.3 Microbial Diversity, Adaptation and Co-metabolism 298
16.3.4 Biomass Concentration and Structure 300
16.3.5 Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) 300
16.3.6 Sludge Retention Time 301
16.4 Does Technology Influence Micropollutants Removal? 302
16.5 Guidelines to Enhance the Removal of Micropollutants in STPs 305
References 306
Chapter 17 311
Xenobiotics Removal by Membrane Technology: An Overview 311
17.1 Introduction 312
17.1.1 Xenobiotics Removal by Conventional Water Treatment Processes and Natural Water Contamination 312
17.1.2 Target Xenobiotics 313
17.1.3 Membrane Processes 313
17.2 Microfiltration, Ultrafiltration and Membrane Bioreactors 316
17.2.1 Xenobiotics Removal by MF and UF 317
17.2.2 Solute–Solute Interaction and Retention by MF and UF 318
17.2.3 Hybrid Processes on Xenobiotics Removal by Large Pore Size Membranes 319
17.2.4 Xenobiotics Removal Using Membrane Bioreactors 319
17.3 Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis 320
17.3.1 Size Exclusion 321
17.3.2 Adsorption 322
17.3.3 Charge Repulsion 326
17.3.4 Solute–Solute Interactions and Fouling 328
17.3.4.1 Solute–Solute Interaction with Retained Organics Increases Xenobiotics Retention 328
17.3.4.2 Absence of Solute–Solute Interaction of Xenobiotics with Retained Organics does not Affect Xenobiotic Retention 328
17.3.4.3 Membrane Fouling Increases Xenobiotics Retention 329
17.3.4.4 Membrane Fouling Decreases Xenobiotics Retention 329
17.3.4.5 Membrane Fouling Affects Xenobiotics Adsorption 329
17.4 Electrodialysis 330
17.5 Pervaporation 331
17.6 Membrane Distillation 331
17.7 Large Scale Applications 332
17.7.1 Méry sur Oise 332
17.7.2 NEWater 333
17.7.3 Water Factory 21 (WF21) 333
17.7.4 Luggage Point Water Reclamation Plant 334
17.8 Conclusions 335
References 335
Chapter 18 343
Membrane BioReactors: A Cost-Effective Solution to Enhance the Removal of Xenobiotics from Urban Wastewaters? 343
18.1 Introduction 344
18.2 Xenobiotics in the Urban Water Cycle in Italy: The Lagoon of Venice as Precursor 346
18.2.1 Objectives of the Experiments and Main Operating Parameters 346
18.2.1.1 Pilot 1 346
18.2.1.2 Pilots 2 348
18.2.1.3 Full Scale Urban MBR: Viareggio (Central Italy) 348
18.3 Results and Discussion 350
18.3.1 Metals 350
18.3.2 Organic Xenobiotics: Focus on Industrial Chemicals and Products 352
18.3.3 Upgrading of Full Scale CASPs by MBR Technology: Considerations on Costs and Power Requirements 354
18.4 Conclusions 355
References 356
Chapter 19 359
Removal of Xenobiotics from Wastewater in Sequencing Batch Reactors: Conventional and Two-Phase Configurations 359
19.1 Introduction 360
19.2 Conventional Sequencing Batch Reactors (SBRs) 361
19.2.1 Operating Modes 361
19.2.2 Advantages of SBRs 363
19.3 Two Phase Partitioning Bioreactors (TPPBs) 363
19.3.1 Two Phase Configuration: Principles and Operation 363
19.3.2 TPP Bioreactors Operating with Liquid Solvents 365
19.3.3 TPP Bioreactors Operating with Polymers 365
19.4 Fundamental Modelling 367
19.5 Case Study: 4-Nitrophenol 370
19.5.1 Conventional SBR 370
19.5.2 TPPB-SBR 372
19.5.2.1 Undecanone as Liquid Partitioning Phase 372
19.5.2.2 Polymers as Solid Partitioning Phase 374
19.6 Conclusions 376
References 376
Chapter 20 379
Fate and Occurrence of Surfactants-Derived Alkylphenolic Compounds in Conventional and Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) Wastewater Tr 379
20.1 Introduction 379
20.2 Sources of Alkylphenolic Compounds in Wastewaters 380
20.3 Fate of APEOs in Wastewaters 381
20.3.1 Removal in Conventional Wastewater Treatment Plants 381
20.3.1.1 Occurrence in Sewage Sludge 384
20.3.2 Removal Using Membrane Bioreactors (MBR) 385
20.4 Conclusions 386
References 387
Chapter 21 390
Removal of Xenobiotic Compounds from Water and Wastewater by Advanced Oxidation Processes1 390
21.1 Fundamentals of Advanced Oxidation Processes 391
21.2 Recent Applications of Advanced Oxidation Processes in Wastewater Treatment 394
21.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Application of Advanced Oxidation Processes 398
21.3 Introduction to Solar-Driven Advanced Oxidation Processes 400
21.3.1 Solar Devices 401
21.3.2 Target Compounds and Applications 402
21.3.3 Solar Heterogeneous Applications 403
21.3.4 Solar Homogeneous Applications 404
21.4 Applications of Advanced Oxidation Processes in Drinking Water Treatment 405
21.4.1 Natural Organic Matter Removal and Control of Disinfection by-Products 405
21.4.2 Removal of Xenobiotics 407
21.5 Conclusions and Perspectives 409
References 410
Chapter 22 416
Biological, Chemical and Photochemical Treatment of Commercially Important Naphthalene Sulphonates 416
22.1 Introduction 416
22.2 Industrial Significance, Sources and Fate in Natural Waters 417
22.3 Biological Treatment of Naphthalene Sulphonates 418
22.4 Chemical and Photochemical Treatment of Naphthalene Sulphonates Including Advanced Oxidation Processes 420
22.5 Identification of Advanced Oxidation Products and Degradation Pathway 428
22.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 430
References 430
Chapter 23 434
Uptake of Xenobiotics from Polluted Waters by Plants 434
23.1 Introduction 434
23.2 Phytoremediation 435
23.2.1 General Advantages and Limitations of Phytoremediation 436
23.2.1.1 Advantages of Phytoremediation 436
23.2.1.2 Limitations to Phytoremediation 436
23.2.2 Organic Xenobiotics 437
23.2.2.1 Phytodegradation 437
23.2.2.2 Rhizodegradation 437
23.2.2.3 Phytovolatilization 438
23.3 Utilization of Phytoremediation for Water Cleaning 438
23.3.1 General Approach 438
23.3.2 Industrial Contaminants 439
23.3.3 Agricultural Contaminants 439
23.3.4 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) 440
23.3.5 Urban and Storm Waters 442
23.4 Performance 442
23.5 Conclusion 442
References 443
Chapter 24 448
Treatment Techniques and Analysis of Stormwater Run-off from Roads in Hamburg, Germany 448
24.1 Introduction 449
24.2 Highway Stormwater Run-off 450
24.3 Soil Filter Harburger Berge 456
24.4 Plant-Stocked Soil Filter Halenreie 458
24.5 Field-Scale Experiments (Halenreie Plant) 460
24.6 Conclusions 461
References 462
Chapter 25 466
Options for Mitigation: An Overview of Measures 466
25.1 Introduction 466
25.2 Actors and Their (Sense of) Responsibility 468
25.3 Measure Options: Tools for Mitigation 469
25.3.1 Green Procurement 470
25.3.2 Legislation and Regulations 471
25.3.3 Cooperation and Voluntary Agreements 473
25.3.4 Financial Incentives 473
25.3.5 Information Campaigns and Public Awareness Programmes 474
25.3.6 Ecolabelling 476
25.3.7 Substitution 476
25.3.8 Green Chemistry 477
25.4 Follow-up and Cost Associated with Mitigation Measures 478
25.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 478
References 479
Chapter 26 482
Outlook 482
26.1 Lessons Learned 482
26.2 Knowledge Gaps and Issues That Need to be Resolved 483
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 6.1.2010 |
|---|---|
| Reihe/Serie | Environmental Pollution | Environmental Pollution |
| Zusatzinfo | XIV, 507 p. |
| Verlagsort | Dordrecht |
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Ökologie / Naturschutz |
| Naturwissenschaften ► Geowissenschaften | |
| Sozialwissenschaften ► Politik / Verwaltung | |
| Technik ► Bauwesen | |
| Technik ► Umwelttechnik / Biotechnologie | |
| Schlagworte | Contaminants • ecotoxicology • Emissions • Environment • mass flows • risk assessment • sources and fluxes • Stormwater • Toxicity • Urban water cycle • Water Quality and Water Pollution • water/wastewater • xenobiotics |
| ISBN-10 | 90-481-3509-5 / 9048135095 |
| ISBN-13 | 978-90-481-3509-7 / 9789048135097 |
| Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt? |
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