System Health Management – with Aerospace Applications

Dr Stephen B. Johnson is a Heath Management Systems Engineer at the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center in the USA, as well as an associate research professor at the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs. He has been active in the field of SHM for over 20 years, and has authored many research papers on the topic. He has also authored or edited 3 books in the aerospace field including The Secret of Apollo: Systems Management in American and European Space Programs. Mr Thomas Gormley has been involved with the NASA Aerospace industry for over 20 years, and was the Integrated Vehicle Health Management Project Leader for Rockwell Space Systems during the early 1990s. He brings expertise in systems implementation to the project. Dr Seth S. Kessler is president and owner of Metis Design Corporation, a design consulting firm specializing in custom sensing solutions. He brings expertise in structural health monitoring and composite materials to the project. Mr Charles Mott is a business analyst with the Tauri group, currently under contract at NASA. He brings expertise in the socio-technical aspects of large-scale technological projects to the project. Dr Ann Patterson-Hine is Group Leader of the Health Management Technologies Group at the Ames Research Center. She brings expertise on the use of engineering models for model-based reasoning in advanced monitoring and diagnostic systems to the project. Dr Karl Reichard is head of the ARL Penn State Monitoring and Automation Department. He brings expertise in the implementation of signal processing, control and embedded diagnost Mr Philip A. Scandura, Jr joined Honeywell in 1984 where he currently holds the position of Staff Scientist in their Advanced Technology Organization. He brings expertise in the system definition and implementation of real-time, embedded systems for use in safety-critical and mission-critical applications to the project.

About the Editors xxiii List of Contributors xxv Foreword xxix Preface xxxiii Part One THE SOCIO-TECHNICAL CONTEXT OF SYSTEM HEALTH MANAGEMENT Charles D. Mott 1 The Theory of System Health Management 3 Stephen B. Johnson Overview 3 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Functions, Off-Nominal States, and Causation 7 1.3 Complexity and Knowledge Limitations 10 1.4 SHM Mitigation Strategies 11 1.5 Operational Fault Management Functions 12 1.6 Mechanisms 19 1.7 Summary of Principles 22 1.8 SHM Implementation 23 1.9 Some Implications 24 1.10 Conclusion 26 Bibliography 26 2 Multimodal Communication 29 Beverly A. Sauer Overview 29 2.1 Multimodal Communication in SHM 31 2.2 Communication Channels 34 2.3 Learning from Disaster 36 2.4 Current Communication in the Aerospace Industry 37 2.5 The Problem of Sense-making in SHM Communication 37 2.6 The Costs of Faulty Communication 38 2.7 Implications 39 2.8 Conclusion 41 Acknowledgments 43 Bibliography 43 3 Highly Reliable Organizations 49 Andrew Wiedlea Overview 49 3.1 The Study of HROs and Design for Dependability 49 3.2 Lessons from the Field: HRO Patterns of Behavior 52 3.2.1 Inseparability of Systemic Equipment and Anthropologic Hazards 53 3.2.2 Dynamic Management of System Risks 54 3.2.3 Social Perceptions of Benefits and Hazards 56 3.3 Dependable Design, Organizational Behavior, and Connections to the HRO Project 57 3.4 Conclusion 60 Bibliography 61 4 Knowledge Management 65 Edward W. Rogers Overview 65 4.1 Systems as Embedded Knowledge 66 4.2 KM and Information Technology 66 4.3 Reliability and Sustainability of Organizational Systems 67 4.4 Case Study of Building a Learning Organization: Goddard Space Flight Center 69 4.5 Conclusion 75 Bibliography 75 5 The Business Case for SHM 77 Kirby Keller and James Poblete Overview 77 5.1 Business Case Processes and Tools 78 5.2 Metrics to Support the Decision Process 80 5.3 Factors to Consider in Developing an Enterprise Model 82 5.4 Evaluation of Alternatives 86 5.5 Modifications in Selected Baseline Model 86 5.6 Modeling Risk and Uncertainty 87 5.7 Model Verification and Validation 88 5.8 Evaluation Results 88 5.9 Conclusion 90 Bibliography 91 Part Two SHM AND THE SYSTEM LIFECYCLE Seth S. Kessler 6 Health Management Systems Engineering and Integration 95 Timothy J. Wilmering and Charles D. Mott Overview 95 6.1 Introduction 95 6.2 Systems Thinking 96 6.3 Knowledge Management 97 6.4 Systems Engineering 98 6.5 Systems Engineering Lifecycle Stages 99 6.6 Systems Engineering, Dependability, and Health Management 100 6.7 SHM Lifecycle Stages 103 6.8 SHM Analysis Models and Tools 110 6.9 Conclusion 112 Acknowledgments 112 Bibliography 112 7 Architecture 115 Ryan W. Deal and Seth S. Kessler Overview 115 7.1 Introduction 115 7.2 SHM System Architecture Components 117 7.3 Examples of Power and Data Considerations 119 7.4 SHM System Architecture Characteristics 120 7.5 SHM System Architecture Advanced Concepts 126 7.6 Conclusion 126 Bibliography 127 8 System Design and Analysis Methods 129 Irem Y. Tumer Overview 129 8.1 Introduction 129 8.2 Lifecycle Considerations 130 8.3 Design Methods and Practices for Effective SHM 132 8.4 Conclusion 141 Acknowledgments 142 Bibliography 142 9 Assessing and Maturing Technology Readiness Levels 145 Ryan M. Mackey Overview 145 9.1 Introduction 145 9.2 Motivating Maturity Assessment 146 9.3 Review of Technology Readiness Levels 147 9.4 Special Needs of SHM 149 9.5 Mitigation Approaches 151 9.6 TRLs for SHM 153 9.7 A Sample Maturation Effort 154 9.8 Conclusion 156 Bibliography 157 10 Verification and Validation 159 Lawrence Z. Markosian, Martin S. Feather and David E. Brinza Overview 159 10.1 Introduction 159 10.2 Existing Software V&V 160 10.3 Feasibility and Sufficiency of Existing Software V&V Practices for SHM 165 10.4 Opportunities for Emerging V&V Techniques Suited to SHM 167 10.5 V&V Considerations for SHM Sensors and Avionics 170 10.6 V&V Planning for a Specific SHM Application 171 10.7 A Systems Engineering Perspective on V&V of SHM 180 10.8 Conclusion 181 Acknowledgments 181 Bibliography 181 11 Certifying Vehicle Health Monitoring Systems 185 Seth S. Kessler, Thomas Brotherton and Grant A. Gordon Overview 185 11.1 Introduction 185 11.2 Durability for VHM Systems 186 11.3 Mechanical Design for Structural Health Monitoring Systems 189 11.4 Reliability and Longevity of VHM Systems 190 11.5 Software and Hardware Certification 190 11.6 Airworthiness Certification 191 11.7 Health and Usage Monitoring System Certification Example 191 11.8 Conclusion 194 Acknowledgments 194 Bibliography 194 Part Three ANALYTICAL METHODS Ann Patterson-Hine 12 Physics of Failure 199 Kumar V. Jata and Triplicane A. Parthasarathy Overview 199 12.1 Introduction 200 12.2 Physics of Failure of Metals 201 12.3 Physics of Failure of CMCs 212 12.4 Conclusion 216 Bibliography 216 13 Failure Assessment 219 Robyn Lutz and Allen Nikora Overview 219 13.1 Introduction 219 13.2 FMEA 220 13.3 SFMEA 221 13.4 FTA 222 13.5 SFTA 222 13.6 BDSA 223 13.7 Safety Analysis 225 13.8 Software Reliability Engineering 225 13.9 Tools and Automation 228 13.10 Future Directions 229 13.11 Conclusion 229 Acknowledgments 230 Bibliography 230 14 Reliability 233 William Q. Meeker and Luis A. Escobar Overview 233 14.1 Time-to-Failure Model Concepts and Two Useful Distributions 233 14.2 Introduction to System Reliability 236 14.3 Analysis of Censored Life Data 239 14.4 Accelerated Life Testing 243 14.5 Analysis of Degradation Data 244 14.6 Analysis of Recurrence Data 246 14.7 Software for Statistical Analysis of Reliability Data 249 Acknowledgments 250 Bibliography 250 15 Probabilistic Risk Assessment 253 William E. Vesely Overview 253 15.1 Introduction 253 15.2 The Space Shuttle PRA 254 15.3 Assessing Cumulative Risks to Assist Project Risk Management 254 15.4 Quantification of Software Reliability 257 15.5 Description of the Techniques Used in the Space Shuttle PRA 260 15.6 Conclusion 263 Bibliography 263 16 Diagnosis 265 Ann Patterson-Hine, Gordon B. Aaseng, Gautam Biswas, Sriram Narashimhan and Krishna Pattipati Overview 265 16.1 Introduction 266 16.2 General Diagnosis Problem 267 16.3 Failure Effect Propagation and Impact 267 16.4 Testability Analysis 268 16.5 Diagnosis Techniques 268 16.6 Automation Considerations for Diagnostic Systems 276 16.7 Conclusion 277 Acknowledgments 277 Bibliography 277 17 Prognostics 281 Michael J. Roemer, Carl S. Byington, Gregory J. Kacprzynski, George Vachtsevanos and Kai Goebel Overview 281 17.1 Background 282 17.2 Prognostic Algorithm Approaches 282 17.3 Prognosis RUL Probability Density Function 287 17.4 Adaptive Prognosis 287 17.5 Performance Metrics 289 17.6 Distributed Prognosis System Architecture 292 17.7 Conclusion 292 Bibliography 293 Part Four OPERATIONS Karl M. Reichard 18 Quality Assurance 299 Brian K. Hughitt Overview 299 18.1 NASA QA Policy Requirements 300 18.2 Quality System Criteria 302 18.3 Quality Clauses 303 18.4 Workmanship Standards 304 18.5 Government Contract Quality Assurance 304 18.6 Government Mandatory Inspection Points 305 18.7 Quality System Audit 306 18.8 Conclusion 307 Bibliography 308 19 Maintainability: Theory and Practice 309 Gary O Neill Overview 309 19.1 Definitions of Reliability and Maintainability 310 19.2 Reliability and Maintainability Engineering 311 19.3 The Practice of Maintainability 314 19.4 Improving R&M Measures 315 19.5 Conclusion 316 Bibliography 317 20 Human Factors 319 Robert S. McCann and Lilly Spirkovska Overview 319 20.1 Background 320 20.2 Fault Management on Next-Generation Spacecraft 323 20.3 Integrated Fault Management Automation Today 325 20.4 Human Automation Teaming for Real-Time FM 328 20.5 Operations Concepts for Crew Automation Teaming 330 20.6 Empirical Testing and Evaluation 333 20.7 Future Steps 334 20.8 Conclusion 336 Bibliography 336 21 Launch Operations 339 Robert D. Waterman, Patricia E. Nicoli, Alan J. Zide, Susan J. Waterman, Jose M. Perotti, Robert A. Ferrell and Barbara L. Brown Overview 339 21.1 Introduction to Launch Site Operations 339 21.2 Human-Centered Health Management 340 21.3 SHM 346 21.4 LS Abort and Emergency Egress 347 21.5 Future Trends Post Space Shuttle 348 21.6 Conclusion 349 Bibliography 349 22 Fault Management Techniques in Human Spaceflight Operations 351 Brian O Hagan and Alan Crocker Overview 351 22.1 The Flight Operations Team 352 22.2 System Architecture Implications 353 22.3 Operations Products, Processes and Techniques 358 22.4 Lessons Learned from Space Shuttle and ISS Experience 364 22.5 Conclusion 366 Bibliography 367 23 Military Logistics 369 Eddie C. Crow and Karl M. Reichard Overview 369 23.1 Focused Logistics 371 23.2 USMC AL 373 23.3 Benefits and Impact of SHM on Military Operations and Logistics 378 23.4 Demonstrating the Value of SHM in Military Operations and Logistics 381 23.5 Conclusion 385 Bibliography 386 Part Five SUBSYSTEM HEALTH MANAGEMENT Philip A. Scandura, Jr. 24 Aircraft Propulsion Health Management 389 Al Volponi and Bruce Wood Overview 389 24.1 Introduction 389 24.2 Basic Principles 390 24.3 Engine-Hosted Health Management 393 24.4 Operating Conditions 394 24.5 Computing Host 395 24.6 Software 396 24.7 On-Board Models 398 24.8 Component Life Usage Estimation 398 24.9 Design of an Engine Health Management System 399 24.10 Supporting a Layered Approach 401 24.11 Conclusion 401 Bibliography 402 25 Intelligent Sensors for Health Management 405 Gary W. Hunter, Lawrence G. Oberle, George Y. Baaklini, Jose M. Perotti and Todd Hong Overview 405 25.1 Introduction 406 25.2 Sensor Technology Approaches 407 25.3 Sensor System Development 409 25.4 Supporting Technologies: High-Temperature Applications Example 412 25.5 Test Instrumentation and Non-destructive Evaluation (NDE) 413 25.6 Transition of Sensor Systems to Flight 414 25.7 Supporting a Layered Approach 415 25.8 Conclusion 416 Acknowledgments 417 Bibliography 417 26 Structural Health Monitoring 419 Fu-Kuo Chang, Johannes F.C. Markmiller, Jinkyu Yang and Yujun Kim Overview 419 26.1 Introduction 419 26.2 Proposed Framework 421 26.3 Supporting a Layered Approach 427 26.4 Conclusion 427 Acknowledgments 427 Bibliography 427 27 Electrical Power Health Management 429 Robert M. Button and Amy Chicatelli Overview 429 27.1 Introduction 429 27.2 Summary of Major EPS Components and their Failure Modes 431 27.3 Review of Current Power System HM 437 27.4 Future Power SHM 440 27.5 Supporting a Layered Approach 441 27.6 Conclusion 442 Bibliography 442 28 Avionics Health Management 445 Michael D. Watson, Kosta Varnavas, Clint Patrick, Ron Hodge, Carl S. Byington, Savio Chau and Edmund C. Baroth Overview 445 28.1 Avionics Description 445 28.2 Electrical, Electronic and Electromechanical (EEE) Parts Qualification 448 28.3 Environments 450 28.4 Failure Sources 453 28.5 Current Avionics Health Management Techniques 453 28.6 Avionics Health Management Requirements 460 28.7 Supporting a Layered Approach 464 28.8 Conclusion 464 Bibliography 464 29 Failure-Tolerant Architectures for Health Management 467 Daniel P. Siewiorek and Priya Narasimhan Overview 467 29.1 Introduction 467 29.2 System Failure Response Stages 468 29.3 System-Level Approaches to Reliability 469 29.4 Failure-Tolerant Software Architectures for Space Missions 470 29.5 Failure-Tolerant Software Architectures for Commercial Aviation Systems 475 29.6 Observations and Trends 477 29.7 Supporting a Layered Approach 480 29.8 Conclusion 480 Acknowledgments 481 Bibliography 481 30 Flight Control Health Management 483 Douglas J. Zimpfer Overview 483 30.1 A FC Perspective on System Health Management 483 30.2 Elements of the FC System 485 30.3 FC Sensor and Actuator HM 485 30.4 FC/Flight Dynamics HM 490 30.5 FC HM Benefits 493 30.6 Supporting a Layered Approach 493 30.7 Conclusion 493 Bibliography 494 31 Life Support Health Management 497 David Kortenkamp, Gautam Biswas and Eric-Jan Manders Overview 497 31.1 Introduction 497 31.2 Modeling 501 31.3 System Architecture 504 31.4 Future NASA Life Support Applications 509 31.5 Supporting a Layered Approach 510 31.6 Conclusion 510 Bibliography 510 32 Software 513 Philip A. Scandura, Jr. Overview 513 32.1 Sampling of Accidents Attributed to Software Failures 513 32.2 Current Practice 514 32.3 Challenges 517 32.4 Supporting a Layered Approach 518 32.5 Conclusion 518 Bibliography 518 Part Six SYSTEM APPLICATIONS Thomas J. Gormley 33 Launch Vehicle Health Management 523 Edward N. Brown, Anthony R. Kelley and Thomas J. Gormley Overview 523 33.1 Introduction 523 33.2 LVSHM Functionality and Scope 524 33.3 LV Terminology and Operations 526 33.4 LV Reliability Lessons Learned 527 33.5 LV Segment Requirements and Architecture 528 33.6 LVSHM Analysis and Design 529 33.7 LV LVSHM System Descriptions 534 33.8 LVSHM Future System Requirements 537 33.9 Conclusion 540 Bibliography 541 34 Robotic Spacecraft Health Management 543 Paula S. Morgan Overview 543 34.1 Introduction 544 34.2 Spacecraft Health and Integrity Concerns for Deep-Space Missions 544 34.3 Spacecraft SHM Implementation Approaches 546 34.4 Standard FP Implementation 546 34.5 Robotic Spacecraft SHM Allocations 547 34.6 Spacecraft SHM Ground Rules and Requirements 548 34.7 SFP and SIFP Architectures 550 34.8 Conclusion 554 Bibliography 554 35 Tactical Missile Health Management 555 Abdul J. Kudiya and Stephen A. Marotta Overview 555 35.1 Introduction 555 35.2 Stockpile Surveillance Findings 556 35.3 Probabilistic Prognostics Modeling 557 35.4 Conclusion 563 Bibliography 564 36 Strategic Missile Health Management 565 Gregory A. Ruderman Overview 565 36.1 Introduction 565 36.2 Fundamentals of Solid Rocket Motors 566 36.3 Motor Components 567 36.4 Challenges for Strategic Rocket Health Management 568 36.5 State of the Art for Solid Rocket System Health Management (SHM) 570 36.6 Current Challenges Facing SRM SHM 572 36.7 Conclusion 574 Bibliography 574 37 Rotorcraft Health Management 577 Paula J. Dempsey and James J. Zakrajsek Overview 577 37.1 Introduction 577 37.2 Rotorcraft System Health Management Standard Practices 579 37.3 New Practices 582 37.4 Lessons Learned 583 37.5 Future Challenges 584 37.6 Conclusion 585 Bibliography 585 38 Commercial Aviation Health Management 589 Philip A. Scandura, Jr., Michael Christensen, Daniel Lutz and Gary Bird Overview 589 38.1 Commercial Aviation Challenge 590 38.2 Layered Approach to SHM 590 38.3 Evolution of Commercial Aviation SHM 591 38.4 Commercial State of the Art 593 38.5 The Next Generation: Intelligent Vehicles/Sense and Respond 600 38.6 Conclusion 603 Bibliography 603 Glossary 605 Acronyms 607 Index 617