Electricity Power Generation

Digamber M. Tagare is founder and Managing Director of Madhav Capacitors Pvt. Ltd. He is responsible for bringing capacitor manufacturing technology to India, and was awarded with the title of "Father of Capacitor Industries in India" from Indian Electrical and Electronics Manufacturers Association (IEEMA) in 2002. Mr. Tagare has published more than 100 technical papers and four books on capacitors and reactive power management. He is a member of both the National Association of Corrosion Engineers and the Electrical Research Association, as well as a Senior Life Member of the IEEE.

Foreword xxi

Preface xxv

1. Electricity History—A Review of the Road Ahead 1

1.1 History of Growth of the Electricity Business 1

1.2 Innovative Technology Developments and Growth of Conglomerates 2

1.3 Economic Growth—GDP and Electricity Consumption 3

1.4 Monopolies Develop Built-In Defects 4

1.5 Breakup of Bell Systems Leads to Unbundling 5

1.6 Importance of Renewable Energy Recognized—Wind Energy Becomes a Challenger 7

1.7 Structural Changes 8

1.8 Cost Breakdown in the Old Model 10

1.9 Step-by-Step Restructuring 11

1.10 The New Decision Authorities 12

1.11 Open Power Marketing Now Rerestructuring Electricity Power System 13

References 13

2. Risks, Operation, and Maintenance of Hydroelectric Generators 15

2.1 The Present Scenario 15

2.2 Types and Sizes of Hydroelectricity Projects 15

2.3 Advantages of Hydroelectricity 18

2.4 Slow progress of Hydroelectricity Projects 19

2.5 Factors Propelling the Phased Progress of the Hydroelectric Industry 21

2.6 Hydro Projects Fall Short of Attracting Private Investment 22

2.7 Dam Building Progress Over a Century 22

2.8 Desirable Configuration for Hydro Projects to Attract Private Investment 24

2.9 Operation of a Hydroelectric Plant 25

2.10 Unit Allocation within a Large HE Plant 28

2.11 Speed Control of a Water Turbine 28

2.12 Startup Process for a WTG 29

2.13 Speed Controls are Rigid 30

2.14 Speed Increase Due to Sudden Load Cutoff 30

2.15 Frequency and Harmonic Behavior After a Sudden Load Rejection 30

2.16 Effect of Penstock Pressure Pulsations 33

2.17 AC Excitation of Rotor Field 33

2.18 Unit Commitment from Hydroelectric Generators, Including Pumped Storage Systems 34

2.19 ICMMS of Hydroelectric Generating Units 34

2.20 Controls and Communications in hydro Systems 35

2.21 General Maintenance 35

2.22 Limitations of Scheduled and Breakdown Maintenance 36

2.23 Reactive Maintenance—Key Elements 36

2.24 Key Components of an ICMMS—Case of a Hydroelectric System 37

2.25 Intelligent Electrohydraulic Servomechanism 37

2.26 Online Monitoring and Forecasting 38

2.27 Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) and Twisting of Rotor Shafts 39

References 40

3. Hydroelectric Generation—Pumped Storage, Minor Hydroelectric, and Oceanic-Based Systems 45

3.1 Water as an Energy Supplier and an Energy Store 45

3.2 Pumped Water Storage System for Electricity Generation 46

3.3 Operation of a Pumped Storage System 46

3.4 Pumped Storage Systems Have Limited Scope 47

3.5 Pumped Storage Systems and Wind Energy 48

3.6 Small Hydroelectric Plants (SHPs) 49

3.7 Types of SHP Projects—Sizes 49

3.8 Location-Wise Designations of SHPs 50

3.9 Components of an SHP 50

3.10 Typical Layouts of SHPs 51

3.11 Project Costs of an SHP 54

3.12 Drawing Electricity from the Ocean 55

3.13 Underwater Turbine and Column-Mounted Generator 57

3.14 Wave Energy 58

Appendix 3-1 World’s Largest Hydro-Electric Projects 60

Appendix 3-2 Remote Control of the Hydroelectric System at Guri 61

References 67

4. Thermal Power Generation—Steam Generators 69

4.1 Thermal Electricity Generation Has the Largest Share—The Present Scenario 69

4.2 Planning of Thermal Stations—Risks and Challenges 70

4.3 Cost Breakdown and Consumption Pattern of Electricity 71

4.5 Workings of a Coal-Fired Steam Generator Unit 74

4.6 Types of Boilers 76

4.7 Classification of Generating Units 78

4.8 Combined-Cycle Power Plant (CCPP) 79

References 83

5. Thermal Station Power Engineering 87

5.1 Start-Up Process of a CCPP 87

5.2 Short-Term Dynamic Response of a CCPP to Frequency Variation 88

5.3 Cascade Tripping of a CCPP Due to Frequency Excursion 88

5.4 Operation Planning to Meet Load Demands—Flow Diagram 89

5.5 Capacity Curves for Thermal Electricity Generation 90

5.6 Operational Economy Includes Fuel Considerations 92

5.7 Efficiency in Operating Practices 92

5.8 Ancillary Services Compulsorily 93

5.9 Changing Performance Requirements for Thermal Plant Operators 94

5.10 Expanding Grids Demand Tight Frequency Tolerances 95

5.11 Reserves are Important in Frequency Control 95

5.12 Reserves Based on Droop Characteristic 96

5.13 Primary Frequency Control 96

5.14 Secondary Frequency Control (SFC) 98

5.15 Tertiary Frequency Control 100

5.16 Rigid Frequency Controls are Bringing in Changes 100

5.17 Voltage Control Services 100

5.18 Voltage Measurement at POD into the Transmission System 101

5.19 Attractive Market Prices Lead to Reserves Over and Above the Compulsory Limits 101

5.20 Importance of Operating Frequency Limits for a Thermal Generator 101

5.21 System Protection 103

5.22 Maintenance Practices 104

5.23 Challenges in Meeting Environmental Obligations 105

5.24 MHD Generators 105

Appendix 5-1 Energy Efficiency Program [36] 106

Appendix 5-2 Capability Curves of a 210 MW Generator 106

Appendix 5-3 Design of an MHD Generator System and its Output Conversion 107

References 111

6. Environmental Constraints in Thermal Power Generation— Acid Rain 115

6.1 Introduction to Acid Rain and Carbon Emissions 115

6.2 World Concern Over Environmental Pollution and Agreements to Control It 116

6.3 U.S. Clean Air Act and Amendments 116

6.4 Complying with Constraints on the SO2 Emission Rate 117

6.5 Surcharges on Emissions 120

6.6 Complying with Constraints on Denitrifying 122

6.7 Continuous-Emission Monitoring Systems (CEMS) 126

6.8 The European Systems: Helsinki Protocol on SO2 and Sofia Protocol on Nox 126

6.9 The Japanese Example—City-Wise and Comprehensive 127

6.10 A Plant Running Out of Emission Allowances 128

6.11 Nox Permits Are Projected as Important Players in Price Fixing of Power in a Free Market 128

6.12 Air Pollution by Carbon Dioxide—CO2 129

Appendix 6-1 Ambient Air Quality Standards for Residential Areas 129

Appendix 6-2 Ambient Air Quality Standards for Industrial Areas 130

Appendix 6-3 Details on Desulphurization Plants in the United States 131

References 132

7. Environmental Constraints in Thermal Power Generation—Carbon and the Kyoto Proposals 135

7.1 Continuing Growth of CO2 in the Air 135

7.2 CO2 from Different Fuels 135

7.3 CO2 Emission by Fuel Type 136

7.4 Coal has the Highest Rate of Growth Among Energy Suppliers 136

7.5 Earth’s Oceans and Seas Absorb CO2 137

7.6 Developments on the Front of Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions 138

7.7 Kyoto Proposals 138

7.8 Clause 1 of Kyoto Protocol of 1998 139

7.9 Original Kyoto Proposals 139

7.10 Proposals for Parties to the 2007 Protocol 140

7.11 Project Report Needs 142

7.12 An Illustrative Validation Report 143

7.13 A Workout for Emission Factors and Emissions for a Hydro and for a Wind Energy Installation 144

7.14 Open Skies Divided in Tons of CO2 Per Nation 145

7.15 An example of Baseline and Emission Reductions 145

7.16 Methodological Tools to Calculate the Baseline and Emission Factor 147

7.17 Tool to Calculate the Emission Factor for an Electricity System 147

7.18 Simple Operating Margins 147

7.19 Incentives for Emission Reduction 148

Appendix 7-1 Default Efficiency Factors for Power Plants 151

References 151

8. Nuclear Power Generation 153

8.1 Nuclear Power Generation Process in Brief 153

8.2 Rise, Fall, and Renaissance of Nuclear Power Plants 154

8.3 Power Uprates 155

8.4 Advantages of Nuclear Plants 156

8.5 Some Types of Nuclear Power Reactors 156

8.6 Other Types from Different Countries 157

8.7 Planning of NP Plants 157

8.8 Financial Risks in Planning 158

8.9 Operation of NP Plants 158

8.10 Safety Measures to Prevent Explosion in a Reactor Vessel 160

8.11 Prevention of Accidents 160

8.12 Class IE Equipment and Distribution Systems—Ungrounded Earthing Systems 163

8.13 Environmental Considerations—Radiation Hazard 164

8.14 Waste Management 164

8.15 Environmental Benefits 165

8.16 Challenges for Research 166

8.17 Rapid Increase in Population Expected 166

8.18 Fast Breeder Reactors 166

Appendix 8-1 Nuclear Reactor Accident at Three Mile Island 167

Appendix 8-2 Chernobyl Accident 168

Appendix 8-3 Worldwide Capacity and Generation of Nuclear Energy 169

References 170

9. Wind Power Generation 173

9.1 Introduction to Wind 173

9.2 Operation of Wind Turbine Generators 175

9.3 Connection of Wind Energy Plants to the Grid—The Grid Code 179

9.4 American Grid Code 180

9.5 A Resistive Braking of a WTG 181

9.6 Power and PF Control 182

9.7 Modeling of a Wind Turbine Generator 182

9.8 Economics of Wind Energy 184

9.9 Capacity Factor of a WTG 186

9.10 Capacity Credit Considerations 186

9.11 Capacity Factor for WECs in a Hybrid System 187

9.12 Wind Penetration Limit 187

9.13 Wind Power Proportion 187

9.14 Wind Integration Cost in United States 188

9.15 Wind Energy Farms 188

9.16 Promoting Growth of Wind Electricity 188

9.17 Maintenance of WTG 190

9.18 UNFCCC and Wind Energy 190

References 190

10. Photovoltaic Energy—Solar Cells and Solar Power Systems 195

10.1 Photovoltaic Energy—How it Works 195

10.2 Advantages of Photovoltaic Energy 195

10.3 Disadvantages of PV Energy 196

10.4 Solar Thermal Density—Insolation 196

10.5 Output of a PV Cell 197

10.6 Variation with Ambient Temperature 197

10.7 Voltage-Versus-Current Characteristics of a Solar Cell 198

10.8 Matching the PV with the Load 199

10.9 Old Working Model of an MPPT 201

10.10 Maximizing the Output of a Solar Panel 201

10.11 Interface with a Power System 202

10.12 Power Conditioning Systems 202

10.13 Super Capacitors and Storage Batteries 204

10.14 NERC Guidelines for Connecting a PV Systm to a Grid 204

10.15 Problems of Interfacing PV Systems with the Grid 205

10.16 Penetration Percentage by a PV Energy System into a Utility Grid 206

10.17 Progress in Application of PV Energy 206

References 213

11. Direct Conversion into Electricity—Fuel Cells 217

11.1 Fuel Cells Bypass Intermediate Steps in the Production of Electrical Energy 217

11.2 Working of a Fuel Cell 217

11.3 A Reformer for Getting Hydrogen from Methane 218

11.4 Fuels for a Fuel Cell 219

11.5 Fuel Cells on the Forefront of Development 220

11.6 Comparison between Fuel Cells 221

11.7 Typical Characteristics of Various Fuel Cells 221

11.8 Developments in Fuel Cells 223

11.9 Applications of Fuel Cells 224

11.10 An SOFC–Gas Turbine System 225

11.11 Efficiencies of Various Systems in Thermal Power Generation Technologies 227

References 228

12. Hybrid Systems 231

12.1 Coupling of Energy Sources 231

12.2 What Exactly are Hybrids? 231

12.3 Stand-Alone Hybrid Power Systems 232

12.4 Use of Renewable Sources of Energy in Mexico—San Antonio Aqua Bendita 234

12.5 Some Definitions 235

12.6 Cost Balance Between PV Cells and Storage Batteries 236

12.7 Hybrids Incorporating Fuel Cells 237

12.8 Midsea Hybrids 238

12.9 Workings of a WTG and Diesel Generator 238

12.10 Wind Energy Penetration Limit 240

12.11 Wind Power–Fuel Cell Hybrids 240

12.12 Interfacing Nonconventional Energy Sources with Utility Systems–Static Power Controllers (SPCs) 241

12.13 Protective Controls Between a Utility and a Newcomer 241

References 243

13. Combined Generation—Cogeneration 247

13.1 Definition and Scope 247

13.2 Rise of Cogeneration 248

13.3 Basic Purpose of Cogeneration 248

13.4 Three Types of Cogenerators 248

13.5 Advantages Offered by Cogeneration 249

13.6 Planning of Cogeneration 250

13.7 Economic Objectives for a Cogenerator 253

13.8 Operation of Cogenerators 254

13.9 Working Together with Cogeneration 256

13.10 Islanding of Cogeneration Section 260

13.11 Environmental Considerations 262

13.12 Cogeneration in Brazil 263

Appendix 13-1 A Typical Cogenerating System for a High-Tech, Science-Based Industrial Park in Taiwan 264

Appendix 13-2 NERC Directive 266

Appendix 13-3 Combined Power Generation and Captive Power 268

Appendix 13-4 Cogeneration in Sugar Mills in India 269

References 270

14. Distributed Generation (DG) and Distributed Resources (DR) 275

14.1 Definition and Scope 275

14.2 Who are the Players in Distribution Generation? 276

14.3 Prominent Features of DRs 276

14.4 Types of DGs 276

14.5 Push Factors, Stay-Put Costs, and Investment Prospects for Electricitym 278

14.6 Investment Options 278

14.7 Planning Sites for a DG 282

14.8 Operation of DGs in an Electric Power System 284

14.9 Islanding of an EPS Section from the Main Body 289

14.10 Allowable Penetration Levels by DRs 291

14.11 Synchronous Generator as a DG with Excitation Controls 292

14.12 How Can a DG Earn Profits? 293

14.13 Scope for Gas-Based DGs 293

14.14 Diesel Generators 293

14.15 Evaluation of Service Rendered by Stand-by DGs 294

14.16 Reliability Cost for a DG Set 294

14.17 Maintenance and Protection of Diesel Generators 295

14.18 UK Policy on Generation of Low-Carbon Electricity 296

References 297

15. Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems 301

15.1 Scope 301

15.2 Definitions per IEEE Std 1547-2003 302

15.3 DR Ceases to Energize the Area EPS 302

15.4 Protective Devices 302

15.5 Schematic of an Interconnection Between a DR and an Area EPS 302

15.6 Restraints on a DR Operator 302

15.7 Responsibilities and Liabilities of EPS Area Operators 303

15.8 Power Quality Windows 304

15.9 Limitation of DC Injection 306

15.10 Islanding of a Local-Area EPS that Includes a DR 306

15.11 Reconnection 308

15.12 Safety Aspects 309

15.13 Testing of Interconnecting Equipment 309

15.14 Interconnections Will be Important in Tomorrow’s Scenario 309

Appendix 15-1 CBIP Standard Recommendation, Extracts from Publication 2517, July 1996 [4] 310

References 311

16. Energy Storage—Power Storage Super Capacitors 315

16.1 Energy Storage and the Future for Renewable Energy Sources 315

16.2 Advantages of Energy Storage 315

16.3 Factors for Choosing Type and Rating of a Storage System 316

16.4 Nature of Support by Electricity Storage Systems 317

16.5 Load Density, Short-Circuit Capacity, and Storage of Energy 318

16.6 Photovoltaic Energy—PV Energy in Residential Applications 318

16.7 Maximum PV Penetration and Maximum Allowable Storage go Hand in Hand 319

16.8 Planning the Size of a Store for PV Inclusion in a Distribution System 319

16.9 Types of Storage Devices for PV Systems 321

16.10 Wind Energy 322

16.11 Storage Technologies 323

16.12 Determining the Size Storage for Wind Power 323

16.13 Control Modes for Stores and WTG 323

16.14 Energy Rating of Stores 328

16.15 Categories of Energy Storages 329

Appendix 16-1 A Supercapacitor 330

References 334

17. Hydrogen Era 337

17.1 Fossil-Based Fuels 337

17.2 Hydrogen Properties 337

17.3 Hydrogen Advantages 338

17.4 Production of Hydrogen 340

17.5 Potential Market Segments for Hydrogen 342

17.6 Present Roadblocks to use of Hydrogen 342

17.7 Governments Envision a Hydrogen Era 343

17.8 An Example to Consider 343

Appendix 17-1 Proceedings of the National Hydrogen Energy Road Map, Workshop Arranged by U.S. DOE 343

Appendix 17-2 HTGR Knowledge Base 347

References 347

18. Basic Structure of Power Marketing 351

18.1 Reconstruction of the Electricity Business 351

18.2 Unbundling of Old Monopoly 352

18.3 Open Access to Critical Facilities 352

18.4 How Does the New System Work? 353

18.5 Market Participants and Their Functions 353

18.6 New Key Personnel 354

18.7 Role of a Regulator or Regulatory Commission 355

18.8 Tools for the System Operator 355

18.9 Secondary Markets 365

18.10 Free Market Objectives 356

18.11 Success of the Free Market 357

18.12 How Do Electricity Markets Operate? 358

18.13 Flow of Operating Funds 358

18.14 Effect of Reconstruction on Electricity Business—Capital Investment Prospects 358

18.15 National Grid Transmission System 361

Appendix 18-1 A Vast Array of Tools to Support Tomorrow’s Market Participants 361

References 363

19. Looking into the Future 365

Index 367