Understanding Microelectronics

Professor Franco Maloberti, University of Pavia, Italy Franco Maloberti is currently Professor of Microelectronics and Head of the Micro Integrated? Systems Group at the University of Pavia. His specialized subjects are in the design, analysis and characterization of integrated circuits and analog digital applications, mainly in the areas of switched-capacitor circuits, data converters, interfaces for telecommunication and sensor systems, and CAD for analog and mixed A/D design. He has written four books and over 370 papers on these topics, and holds 27 patents. Recipient of the XII Pedriali Prize for his technical and scientific contributions to national industrial production, Dr Maloberti was also the co-recipient of the 1996 Institute of Electrical Engineers Fleming Premium, the best Paper award, ESSCIRC-2007, and the best paper award, IEEJ Analog Workshop-2007. He received the 1999 IEEE CAS Society Meritorious Service Award, the 2000 CAS Society Golden Jubilee Medal, and the 2000 IEEE Millennium Medal. Dr Maloberti was the President of the IEEE Sensor Council from 2002 to 2003, and Vice-President, Region 8, of the IEEE CAS Society from 1995 to 1997, also an Associate Editor of IEEE TCAS-II. He is an IEEE Fellow and is presently serving as VP Publications of the IEEE CAS Society.

Preface xvii

List of Abbreviations xxi

1 Overview, Goals and Strategy 1

1.1 Good Morning 1

1.2 Planning the Trip 4

1.3 Electronic Systems 5

1.3.1 Meeting a System 8

1.4 Transducers 11

1.4.1 Sensors 11

1.4.2 Actuators 14

1.5 What is the Role of the Computer? 16

1.6 Goal and Learning Strategies 19

1.6.1 Teamwork Attitude 20

1.6.2 Creativity and Execution 20

1.6.3 Use of Simulation Tools 21

1.7 Self Training, Examples and Simulations 21

1.7.1 Role of Examples and Computer Simulations 22

1.8 Business Issues, Complexity and CAD Tools 23

1.8.1 CAD Tools 23

1.8.2 Analog Simulator 24

1.8.3 Device and Macro-block Models 25

1.8.4 Digital Simulation 26

1.9 ELectronic VIrtual Student Lab (ElvisLab) 27

Problems 29

2 Signals 31

2.1 Introduction 31

2.2 Types of Signals 35

2.3 Time and Frequency Domains 45

2.4 Continuous-time and Discrete-time Signals 51

2.4.1 The Sampling Theorem 55

2.5 Using Sampled-Data Signals 57

2.5.1 The z-transform 58

2.6 Discrete-amplitude Signals 59

2.6.1 Quantized Signal Coding 64

2.7 Signals Representation 65

2.7.1 The Decibel 67

2.8 DFT and FFT 69

2.9 Windowing 70

2.10 Good and Bad Signals 75

2.10.1 Offset 76

2.10.2 Interference 77

2.10.3 Harmonic Distortion 78

2.10.4 Noise 82

2.11 THD, SNR, SNDR, Dynamic Range 86

Problems 89

Additional Computer Examples 92

3 Electronic Systems 95

3.1 Introduction 95

3.2 Electronics for Entertainment 96

3.2.1 Electronic Toys 96

3.2.2 Video Game and Game Console 100

3.2.3 Personal Media Player 101

3.3 Systems for Communication 103

3.3.1 Wired Communication Systems 103

3.3.2 Wireless: Voice, Video and Data 104

3.3.3 RFID 107

3.4 Computation and Processing 108

3.4.1 Microprocessor 110

3.4.2 Digital Signal Processor 111

3.4.3 Data Storage 112

3.5 Measure, Safety, and Control 114

3.5.1 The Weather Station 115

3.5.2 Data Fusion 116

3.5.3 Systems for Automobile Control 119

3.5.4 Noise-canceling Headphones 120

3.6 System Partitioning 122

3.7 System Testing 124

Problems 125

Additional Computer Examples 126

4 Signal Processing 127

4.1 What is Signal Processing? 127

4.2 Linear and Non-linear Processing 130

4.3 Analog and Digital Processing 135

4.3.1 Timing for Signal Processing 138

4.4 Response of Linear Systems 141

4.4.1 Time Response of Linear Systems 141

4.4.2 Frequency Response of Linear Systems 144

4.4.3 Transfer Function 147

4.5 Bode Diagram 151

4.5.1 Amplitude Bode Diagram 151

4.5.2 Phase Bode Diagram 155

4.6 Filters 158

4.6.1 Analog Design and Sensitivity 162

4.6.2 Sampled-data Analog and Digital Design 167

4.7 Non-linear Processing 169

Problems 175

Additional Computer Examples 179

5 Circuits for Systems 181

5.1 Introduction 181

5.2 Processing with Electronic Circuits 183

5.2.1 Electronic Interfaces 184

5.2.2 Driving Capability 188

5.2.3 Electrostatic Discharge Protection 191

5.2.4 DC and AC Coupling 193

5.2.5 Ground and Ground for Signal 197

5.2.6 Single-ended and Differential Circuits 198

5.3 Inside Analog Electronic Blocks 200

5.3.1 Simple Continuous-time Filters 201

5.3.2 Two-Pole Filters 205

5.4 Continuous-time Linear Basic Functions 205

5.4.1 Addition of Signals 206

5.4.2 The Virtual Ground Concept 209

5.4.3 Multiplication by a Constant 212

5.4.4 Integration and Derivative 214

5.5 Continuous-time Non-linear Basic Functions 221

5.5.1 Threshold Detection 222

5.5.2 Analog Multiplier 223

5.6 Analog Discrete-time Basic Operations 225

5.7 Limits in Real Analog Circuits 227

5.8 Circuits for Digital Design 229

5.8.1 Symbols of Digital Blocks 230

5.8.2 Implementation of Digital Functions 233

Problems 234

6 Analog Processing Blocks 239

6.1 Introduction 239

6.2 Choosing the Part 241

6.3 Operational Amplifier 242

6.3.1 Ideal Operation 242

6.4 Op-Amp Description 244

6.4.1 General Description 244

6.4.2 Absolute Maximum Ratings and Operating Rating 244

6.4.3 Electrical Characteristics 245

6.4.4 Packaging and Board Assembly 254

6.4.5 Small-signal Equivalent Circuit 255

6.5 Use of Operational Amplifiers 257

6.5.1 Inverting Amplifier 257

6.5.2 Non-inverting Amplifier 261

6.5.3 Superposing Inverting and Non-inverting Amplification 262

6.5.4 Weighted Addition of Signals (with Inversion) 264

6.5.5 Unity Gain Buffer 265

6.5.6 Integration and Derivative 266

6.5.7 Generalized Amplifier 268

6.6 Operation with Real Op-amps 269

6.6.1 Input Offset 269

6.6.2 Finite Gain 270

6.6.3 Non-ideal Input and Output Impedances 271

6.6.4 Finite Bandwidth 276

6.6.5 Slew-rate Output Clipping and Non-linear Gain 277

6.7 Operational Transconductance Amplifier 280

6.7.1 Use of the OTA 280

6.8 Comparator 284

6.8.1 Comparator Data Sheet 286

6.8.2 Clocked Comparator 289

Problems 289

7 Data Converters 293

7.1 Introduction 293

7.2 Types and Specifications 295

7.2.1 General Features 295

7.2.2 Electrical Static Specifications 296

7.2.3 Electrical Dynamic Specifications 299

7.2.4 Digital and Switching Data 302

7.3 Filters for Data Conversion 303

7.3.1 Anti-aliasing and Reconstruction Filters 303

7.3.2 Oversampling and Digital Filters 305

7.4 Nyquist-rate DAC 306

7.4.1 Resistor-based Architectures 306

7.4.2 Capacitance-based Architectures 312

7.4.3 Parasitic Insensitivity 314

7.4.4 Hybrid Resistive–capacitive Architectures 316

7.4.5 Current-based Architectures 317

7.5 Nyquist-rate ADC 321

7.5.1 Flash Converter 322

7.5.2 Two-step Flash 324

7.5.3 Pipeline Converters 327

7.5.4 Slow Converters 328

7.6 Oversampled Converter 332

7.6.1 Quantization Error and Quantization Noise 332

7.6.2 Benefit of the Noise View 336

7.6.3 Sigma–Delta Modulators 337

7.7 Decimation and Interpolation 342

Problems 344

8 Digital Processing Circuits 347

8.1 Introduction 347

8.2 Digital Waveforms 348

8.2.1 Data Transfer and Data Communication 350

8.2.2 Propagation Delay 354

8.2.3 Asynchronous and Synchronous Operation 355

8.3 Combinational and Sequential Circuits 356

8.3.1 Combinational Circuits 356

8.3.2 Sequential Circuits 358

8.4 Digital Architectures with Memories 360

8.5 Logic and Arithmetic Functions 362

8.5.1 Adder and Subtracter 362

8.5.2 Multiplier 365

8.5.3 Registers and Counters 371

8.6 Circuit Design Styles 377

8.6.1 Complex Programmable Logic Devices (CPLDs) and FPGAs 378

8.7 Memory Circuits 381

8.7.1 Random-access Memory Organization and Speed 382

8.7.2 Types of Memories 384

8.7.3 Circuits for Memories 386

Problems 391

9 Basic Electronic Devices 393

9.1 Introduction 393

9.2 The Diode 395

9.2.1 Equivalent Circuit 398

9.2.2 Parasitic Junction Capacitance 400

9.2.3 Zener and Avalanche Breakdown 402

9.2.4 Doping and p–n Junction 403

9.2.5 Diode in Simple Circuits 407

9.3 The MOS Transistor 411

9.3.1 MOS Physical Structure 412

9.3.2 Voltage–current Relationship 414

9.3.3 Approximating the I–V Equation 416

9.3.4 Parasitic Effects 417

9.3.5 Equivalent Circuit 419

9.4 MOS Transistor in Simple Circuits 421

9.5 The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) 423

9.5.1 The BJT Physical Structure 426

9.5.2 BJT Voltage–current Relationships 427

9.5.3 Bipolar Transistor Model and Parameters 431

9.5.4 Darlington Configuration 433

9.5.5 Small-signal Equivalent Circuit of the Bipolar Transistor 434

9.6 Bipolar Transistor in Simple Circuits 435

9.7 The Junction Field-effect Transistor (JFET) 439

9.8 Transistors for Power Management 441

Problems 443

10 Analog Building Cells 445

10.1 Introduction 445

10.2 Use of Small-signal Equivalent Circuits 446

10.3 Inverting Voltage Amplifier 447

10.4 MOS Inverter with Resistive Load 451

10.4.1 Small-signal Analysis of the CMOS Inverter 452

10.5 CMOS Inverter with Active Load 454

10.5.1 CMOS Inverter with Active Load: Small-signal Analysis 456

10.6 Inverting Amplifier with Bipolar Transistors 459

10.6.1 Small-signal Analysis of BJT Inverters 462

10.7 Source and Emitter Follower 471

10.7.1 Small-signal Equivalent Circuit of Source and Emitter Follower 473

10.7.2 Small-signal Input and Output Resistance 474

10.8 Cascode with Active Load 477

10.8.1 Equivalent Resistances 480

10.8.2 Cascode with Cascode Load 482

10.9 Differential Pair 483

10.10 Current Mirror 487

10.10.1 Equivalent Circuit 488

10.10.2 Current Mirror with High Output Resistance 489

10.10.3 Differential to Single-ended Converter 490

10.11 Reference Generators 492

Problems 493

11 Digital Building Cells 495

11.1 Introduction 495

11.2 Logic Gates 496

11.2.1 Gate Specifications 497

11.3 Boolean Algebra and Logic Combinations 499

11.4 Combinational Logic Circuits 504

11.4.1 Exclusive-OR and Exclusive-NOR 505

11.4.2 Half-adder and Full-adder 507

11.4.3 Logic Comparators 509

11.4.4 Decoders 511

11.4.5 Parity Generator and Parity Checker 513

11.5 Sequential Logic Circuits 514

11.5.1 Latch 514

11.5.2 Gated Latch 516

11.5.3 Edge-triggered Flip-flop 517

11.5.4 Master–slave Flip-flop 519

11.6 Flip-flop Specifications 520

11.7 Transistor Schemes of Logic Cells 522

11.7.1 CMOS Inverter 522

11.7.2 Dynamic Response of CMOS Inverters 526

11.7.3 Power Consumption 529

11.7.4 NOR and NAND 530

11.7.5 Pass-gate Logic 532

11.7.6 Tri-state Gates 534

11.7.7 Dynamic Logic Circuits 535

Problems 536

12 Feedback 539

12.1 Introduction 539

12.2 General Configuration 540

12.2.1 Linear Feedback Systems 541

12.3 Properties of Negative Feedback 543

12.3.1 Gain Sensitivity 545

12.3.2 Bandwidth Improvement 545

12.3.3 Reducing Distortion 547

12.3.4 Noise Behavior 549

12.4 Types of Feedback 551

12.4.1 Real Input and Output Ports 553

12.4.2 Input and Output Resistances 555

12.5 Stability 559

12.5.1 Frequency Response of Feedback Circuits 559

12.5.2 Gain and Phase Margins 562

12.5.3 Compensation of Operational Amplifiers 563

12.6 Feedback Networks 566

Problems 568

13 Power Conversion and Power Management 571

13.1 Introduction 571

13.2 Voltage Rectifiers 572

13.2.1 Half-wave Rectifier 573

13.2.2 Full-wave Rectifier 577

13.3 Voltage Regulators 581

13.3.1 Zener Regulator 581

13.3.2 Series Linear Regulator 583

13.3.3 Series Linear Regulator with Adjustable Voltage 588

13.3.4 Supply of Active Blocks and Drop-out Voltage 590

13.3.5 Low Drop-out (LDO) Voltage Regulator 591

13.3.6 Protection Circuits 593

13.4 Switched Capacitor Regulator 595

13.4.1 Power Consumed by SC Regulators 597

13.4.2 Generation of Negative Voltages 599

13.4.3 Voltage Ripple 600

13.5 Charge Pump 601

13.6 Switching Regulators 604

13.6.1 Buck Converter 605

13.6.2 Boost Converter 607

13.6.3 Buck–boost Converter 610

13.6.4 Loop Control and Switches 611

13.6.5 Efficiency of Switching Regulator 613

13.7 Power Management 615

13.7.1 Rechargeable Batteries 615

13.7.2 Power Harvesting 618

13.7.3 Power Management Techniques 620

Problems 622

14 Signal Generation and Signal Measurement 623

14.1 Introduction 623

14.2 Generation of Simple Waveforms 624

14.3 Oscillators 627

14.3.1 Wien-bridge Oscillator 629

14.3.2 Phase-shift Oscillator 630

14.3.3 Ring Oscillator 631

14.3.4 Tank and Harmonic Oscillator 634

14.3.5 Digitally Controlled and Voltage-controlled Oscillator (VCO) 636

14.3.6 Quartz Oscillator 638

14.3.7 Phase Noise and Jitter 640

14.3.8 Phase-locked Oscillator 642

14.4 DAC-based Signal Generator 647

14.5 Signal Measurement 649

14.5.1 Multimeter 651

14.5.2 Oscilloscope 652

14.5.3 Logic Analyzer 655

14.6 Spectrum Analyzer 657

Problems 658

Index 661