A Practical Guide to Critical Thinking

David A. Hunter, PhD, is Associate Professor of Philosophy at Ryerson University, Canada. He has published numerous journal articles in his areas of research interest, which include the philosophy of language, the philosophy of mind, epistemology, and critical thinking.

Preface. Note to Instructors. Chapter 1: The Nature and Value of Critical Thinking. 1.1 The Nature of Critical Thinking. Exercise 1.1. 1.2 Critical Thinking and Knowledge. Exercise 1.2. 1.2.1 Truth. 1.2.1.1 Realism, Relativism and Nihilism. 1.2.1.2 Relativism and The Argument from Disagreement. 1.2.2 Belief. 1.2.3 Justification. 1.2.3.1 Emotional and Pragmatic Reasons. 1.2.3.2 Epistemic Reasons. 1.2.4 Good Reasons are Sufficient and Acceptable. 1.2.4.1 When Evidence Conflicts. Exercise 1.2. 1.3 Critical Thinking and Personal Autonomy. 1.3.1 Belief and Prejudice. 1.3.2 Making up your Own Mind. Exercise 1.3. 1.4 Mistakes to Avoid. 1.5 Practical Strategies. 1.6 From Theory to Practice: applying what we have been learning. Chapter 2 Clarifying Meaning. 2.1 The Place of Definitions in Critical Thinking. 2.2 Assertion. 2.2.1 Propositions. Exercise 2.2.1. 2.2.2 Assertion Test. Exercise 2.2.2. 2.3 Constructing and Evaluating Definitions. 2.3.1 Slogan. 2.3.1.1 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions. 2.3.1.2 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions are Related in Complex Ways. 2.3.1.3 Narrow and Broad Definitions. 2.3.1.4 Definitions in Practical Life. Exercise 2.3.1. 2.3.2 Expand. 2.3.3 Examples. 2.3.4 Contrast. Exercise 2.3. 2.4 Thinking Critically about Frameworks. Exercise 2.4. 2.5 Clarifying Beliefs and Problems. Exercise 2.5. 2.6 Technical Definitions. 2.7 Meaning in Advertisements. Exercise 2.7. 2.8 Mistakes to Avoid. 2.9 Practical Strategies. 2.10 From Theory to Practice: applying what we have learned. Chapter 3 Sufficient Reasons. 3.1 Critical Thinking and Arguments. Exercise 3.1. 3.2 Identifying Premises and Conclusions. Exercise 3.2. 3.3 Dependent and Independent Premises. 3.3.1 The Words Test. 3.3.2 The False Premise Test. 3.3.3 Circumstantial Reasons. Exercise 3.3. 3.4 Sub-Arguments. Exercise 3.4. 3.5 Evaluating Logical Support. Exercise 3.5. 3.6 Missing Premises. Exercise 3.6. 3.7 Practical Strategies. 3.8 From theory to Practice: applying what we have learned. Chapter 4 Acceptable Reasons. 4.1 Reliable Evidence. 4.1.1 Reliability. 4.1.2 Undermining and Overriding Evidence. Exercise 4.1. 4.2 Observation. 4.3 Memory. Exercise 4.3. 4.4 Testimony. 4.4.1 Appropriate Testimony. 4.4.2 Competent Testimony. 4.4.3 Unbiased Testimony. 4.4.4 Advertizing. 4.4.5 News Reports. Exercise 4.4. 4.5 Measurement. 4.5.1 Measurement Consistency. 4.5.2 Measurement Precision. 4.5.3 Surveys. Exercise 4.5. 4.6 Mistakes to Avoid. 4.7 Practical Strategies. 4.8 From Theory to Practice: applying what we have learned. Chapter 5 Reasoning about Alternatives and about Necessary and Sufficient Conditions. 5.1 Reasoning about Alternatives. 5.1.1 The Meaning of Disjunctions . 5.1.2 Denying a Disjunct. 5.1.3 False Disjunctions. 5.1.4 When are Disjunctions Acceptable?. 5.1.5 Exclusive Disjunctions. 5.1.6 Criticizing Reasoning about Alternatives. Exercise 5.1 . 5.2 Reasoning about Necessary and Sufficient Conditions. 5.2.1 The Meaning of Conditionals. 5.2.1.1 Sufficient Conditions. 5.2.1.2 Necessary Conditions. 5.2.1.3 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions. Exercise 5.2.1. 5.2.2 Valid Forms of Reasoning about Necessary and Sufficient Conditions. 5.2.3 Invalid Forms of Reasoning about Necessary and Sufficient Conditions. 5.2.4 Making it Explicit. Exercise 5.2.4. 5.2.5 When are claims about Necessary and Sufficient Conditions Acceptable?. 5.3 Reasoning with Definitions and Standards. 5.4 Reasoning about Causal Conditions. 5.4.1 The Meaning of Causal Claims. 5.4.2 Reasoning with Causal Claims. 5.4.3 When are Causal Claims Acceptable?. 5.4.3.1 Discovering Necessary Causal Conditions. 5.4.3.2 Discovering Sufficient Causal Conditions. 5.4.3.3 Discovering Necessary and Sufficient Causal Conditions. 5.3.4.4 Concomitant Variation. 5.3.4.5 Experimenting and Simulating. Exercise 5.4. 5.5 Mistakes to Avoid. 5.6 Practical Strategies. Chapter 6 Reasoning by Analogy. 6.1 Reasoning by Analogy. 6.1.1 Some Examples. 6.1.2 Is Reasoning by Analogy valid?. 6.1.3 Relevant Similarity. 6.1.4 When is an Analogical Claim True?. Exercise 6.1. 6.2 Reasoning using Representational Analogy. 6.2.1 Reasoning with Samples. 6.2.2 When are Samples Representative?. 6.2.2.1 Sample Size. 6.2.2.2 Random Samples. 6.2.2.3 Self-Selected Samples. 6.2.3 Reasoning with Maps and Models. Exercise 6.2. 6.3 Mistakes to Avoid. 6.4 From Theory to Practice: applying what we have learned. Chapter 7 Critical Thinking in Action . 7.1 Thinking Critically about a Discipline. 7.1.1 Identifying a Discipline's Key Concepts. 7.1.2 Clarifying a Discipline's Key Concepts. Exercise 7.1.2. 7.1.3 Identifying a Discipline's Sources of Evidence. Exercise 7.1.3. 7.1.4 Identifying a Discipline's Modes of Reasoning. 7.2 Critical Thinking Questions. 7.3 Thinking Critically in your own Decision Making. 7.3.1 Clarify your Views. 7.3.2 Clarify your Reasons. 7.3.3 Show that your Reasons are Acceptable and Sufficient. 7.3.4 Identify and Respond to Alternatives. 7.4 Thinking Critically in Discussion. 7.4.1 Ask Open-Ended Clarification Questions. 7.4.2 Withhold Disagreement and Agreement. 7.4.4 Keep Emotional Distance. 7.5 From Theory to Practice: applying what we have learned. Appendix A. Mistakes to Avoid. Appendix B. Practical Strategies.