Revisiting the Political Orientation of the Middle Class

Table of Contents
Abstractv
Kurzfassung (Abstract in German)vii
Acknowledgmentsix
List of Tables and Figuresxvii
List of Abbreviationsxix
1Introduction1
1.1 Theoretical and Conceptual Foundations3
1.1.1 The Modernization Theory’s Perspective on the Middle Class4
1.1.2 Non-Western Studies on the Middle Class7
1.1.3 Good Governance Approach in Explaining Duterte’s Support from the Middle Class10
1.1.4 Populist Approach in Explaining Duterte’s Support from the Middle Class14
1.2 Significance of the Study19
1.3 Structure of the Book20
2 Who Compose the Middle Class?23
2.1 Middle Class in the Western Literature23
2.2 Filipino Middle Class30
2.3 Importance of the Middle Class37
2.4 The Middle Class Respondents40
2.5 Summary43
3Research Design45
3.1 Research Participants45
3.2 Biographical Narrative Interview46
3.3 Grounded Theory47
3.4 Research Trips49
3.5 Ethical Considerations50
4Background of Davao City53
4.1 General Background Profile53
4.2 History of Davao54
4.2.1 Pre-Colonization Migration55
4.2.2 Spanish Colonization55
4.2.3 American and Japanese Occupations56
4.2.4 Migration from Luzon and Visayas57
4.2.5 Davao as a Chartered City58
4.2.6 Davao and the Second World War58
4.2.7 Davao During Martial Law and Alsa Masa59
4.3 Rules and Regulations in Davao City under Duterte61
4.4 Summary62
5Socio-Cultural and Psychological Perspectives on the Support for Duterte65
5.1 The Recurrence of the “Asian Values”: Post-colonialist Perspective 65
5.1.1 The “Asian Values” Debate 68
5.1.2 Support for Duterte and “Asian Values”72
5.2 Psychological Perspective: Who comprises the community in Davao?75
5.2.1 Social Identity Theory 76
5.2.2 The Majority and the Minority78
5.2.3 The Clean and the Unclean: Limpyo Leadership79
5.2.4 The Non-Threat and the Security Threat: No Fault – No Fear Mentality80
5.2.5 The Community and the Enemy: War on Crime and Drugs81
5.3 No to Marcos and Yes to Duterte82
5.4 The War on Drugs86
5.4.1 Methamphetamine87
5.4.2 Framing of the Drug Users90
6Davao City Before Duterte93
6.1 Marcos’ Martial Law93
6.1.1 Militarization and Military Intimidation94
6.1.2 Human Rights Violations and Abuse of Power97
6.1.3 Marcos and Duterte’s Martial Law99
6.2 Anti-Marcos Movements101
6.2.1 Student Activism102
6.2.2 The Presence of the New Peoples Army in Davao City104
6.2.2.1 The Kangaroo Court106
6.2.2.2 Agaw-Armas107
6.3 Alsa Masa in Davao City108
6.4 Violence and Chaos111
6.5 Summary113
7 Leadership of Duterte in Davao City115
7.1 Davao City without the Threat of the NPA115
7.2 Crime Incident Reduction116
7.3 Discipline among the Residents of the City118
7.4 Handling of Issues on War on Drugs119
7.5Davao Death Squad and the Killing of Suspected Criminals and Drug Personalities121
7.6 Limpyo Davao126
7.7 No Knowledge and No Evidence128
7.8 No Fault – No Fear Mentality129
7.9 Police Visibility131
7.10 Freedom of Expression132
7.11 Comparison between Duterte and De Guzman132
7.12 Summary133
8 Understanding the Support for Duterte in Davao City137
8.1 Subjective Themes137
8.1.1 Relationality of Duterte with the People138
8.1.2 Non-discriminatory Treatment of Minority Groups140
8.1.3 Inclusive Leadership142
8.1.4 Character of Duterte143
8.1.5 Hugpong sa Tawong Lungsod145
8.2 City Government Programs during Duterte’s Mayoralty in Davao City147
8.2.1 Lingap Para sa Mahirap148
8.2.2 Tribal Deputy Leadership150
8.2.3 Anti-Discrimination Ordinance152
8.2.4 Davao Central 911154
9Conclusion157
9.1 Key Insights of the Study157
9.2 Implications for Research161
9.3 Practical Implications163
9.4 Limitations of the Study and Future Research163
References165
Annex: Lists of Interviewees197