How Learning Works

Marsha C. Lovett, PhD, is Vice Provost for Teaching and Learning Innovation and a Teaching Professor of Psychology at Carnegie Mellon University. Michael W. Bridges, PhD, is Executive Director of the University Center for Teaching and Learning at the University of Pittsburgh. Michele DiPietro, PhD, is Executive Director of the Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning and a Professor in the School of Data Science and Analytics at Kennesaw State University. Susan A. Ambrose, DA, is retired from Northeastern University, where she was Senior Vice Chancellor for Educational Innovation and a Professor of Education and History. Marie K. Norman, PhD, is Director of the Innovative Design for Education and Assessment (IDEA) Lab and Associate Professor of Medicine and Clinical and Translational Science at the University of Pittsburgh.

List of Figures, Tables, and Exhibits xi

Foreword to the First Edition: Applying the Science of Learning to College Teaching
Richard E. Mayer xiii

Acknowledgments xvii

About the Authors xix

Preface to the Second Edition xxiii

Introduction Bridging Learning Research and Teaching Practice 1

1 Why Do Students’ Identities and Stages of Development Matter for Learning? 9

2 How Does Students’ Prior Knowledge Affect Their Learning? 39

3 How Does the Way Students Organize Knowledge Affect Their Learning? 64

4 What Factors Motivate Students to Learn? 84

5 How Do Students Develop Mastery? 106

6 What Kinds of Practice and Feedback Enhance Learning? 130

7 Why Does Course Climate Matter for Student Learning? 162

8 How Do Students Become Self- Directed Learners? 187

Conclusion Applying the Eight Principles to Ourselves 212

Appendices

Appendix A What Are Instructor Self- Assessments/Reflections and How Can We Use Them? 219

Appendix B What Are Ground Rules and How Can We Use Them? 223

Appendix C What Are Student Self- Assessments and How Can We Use Them? 226

Appendix D What Are Concept Maps and How Can We Use Them? 229

Appendix E What Are Rubrics and How Can We Use Them? 232

Appendix F What Are Learner Checklists and How Can We Use Them? 242

Appendix G What Are Learning Objectives and How Can We Use Them? 244

Appendix H What Are Active Learning Strategies and How Can We Use Them? 247

Appendix I What Are Reader Responses/Peer Reviews and How Can We Use Them? 250

Appendix J What Are Exam Wrappers and How Can We Use Them? 252

References 255

Name Index 287

Subject Index 299