Evolutionary Gerontology and Geriatrics (eBook)

Foreword 7
Terminology + Abbreviations 9
Contents 12
Chapter 1: Introduction 17
1.1 Evolutionary Medicine and ``Evolutionary Gerontology and Geriatrics´´ 17
1.2 Definition of Aging 18
1.3 Aging in Natural Observation 20
1.4 A Short History of Aging Theories 24
1.4.1 The Conception of Aging Up to Nineteenth Century 24
1.4.2 Aging Theories in the Nineteenth Century and the First Half of the Twentieth Century 26
1.4.3 Aging Theories from the Second Half of the Twentieth Century to Today 32
1.4.4 Classification of Aging Theories 40
References 41
Chapter 2: Evolution and Phenoptosis 48
2.1 Darwinian Definition of Natural Selection 48
2.2 Supra-Individual Selection 49
2.3 Definition of Phenoptosis 52
2.4 Examples of Phenoptosis and Its Wide Diffusion 53
2.4.1 (A) Obligatory and Rapid Phenoptosis 53
2.4.2 (B) Obligatory and Slow Phenoptosis 56
2.4.3 (C) Optional Phenoptosis 58
2.4.4 (D) Indirect Phenoptosis 63
2.5 Phenoptotic Phenomena in our Species 65
2.6 Life Tables and Phenoptosis 66
References 77
Chapter 3: Evolutionary Medicine 84
3.1 Definition of Evolutionary Medicine 84
3.2 A Brief History of Evolutionary Medicine 84
3.3 The Concept of Normality in Evolutionary Medicine 94
3.4 The Concept of Mismatch in Evolutionary Medicine 99
3.5 Diseases Caused by Mismatches 99
3.6 Diseases Caused by Alterations of the Genotype 100
3.7 The Concept of Holobiont 106
3.8 Immune Disorders in the Interpretation of Evolutionary Medicine 107
3.8.1 The Current ``Epidemic´´ of Allergic Diseases 107
3.8.2 The Current ``Epidemic´´ of Autoimmune Diseases 108
3.8.3 Causes of the Epidemic of Immune Disorders 112
3.9 Non-evolutionary Classification of Diseases 121
3.10 Evolutionary Classification of Diseases 122
3.11 Meaning and Aims of Evolutionary Medicine 126
References 129
Chapter 4: The Comparison Between the Two Paradigms 136
4.1 Introduction 136
4.2 The Paradigm of Aging as a Non-adaptive Phenomenon 137
4.3 The Paradigm of Aging as an Adaptive Phenomenon 140
4.4 Arguments and Evidence in Support or Against the Theories Pertaining to the Two Paradigms 144
4.4.1 Absence of Unlikely Postulates 144
4.4.2 Non-universality of Aging 146
4.4.3 Variation of Aging Rhythms in the Comparison among Species 147
4.4.4 Consideration of Supra-Individual Natural Selection and Phenoptotic Phenomena 150
4.4.5 Effects of Caloric Restriction on Lifespan 150
4.4.6 Existence of Age-Related Increasing Mortality in the Wild 151
4.4.7 In the Comparison Among Species, the Inverse Relation Between Extrinsic Mortality and the Proportion of Deaths Due to In... 154
4.4.8 Impossibility of Explaining Age-Related Fitness Decline as a Consequence of Genes that Are Harmful at a Certain Age 157
4.4.9 Age-Related Progressive Decline of Cell Turnover Capacities 160
4.4.10 Cell Senescence Program 162
4.4.11 Gradual Cell Senescence 163
4.4.12 General Evaluation of the Arguments Mentioned earlier 164
4.5 Aging as an Accelerating Factor of Evolution Theory 166
4.6 Kin Selection Aging Theory 168
4.6.1 Definitions 169
4.6.2 The Evolutionary Advantage of a Shorter ML 170
4.6.3 Effects of IMICAW on ML 172
4.6.4 Evolutionary Steadiness of a Gene Causing IMICAW 173
4.6.5 The Preliminary Conditions 178
4.6.6 Two Possible Objections 179
4.6.7 The Methuselah Effect 179
4.6.8 IMICAW, IMICAC, and t-genes 183
References 184
Chapter 5: Subtelomere-Telomere Aging Theory 194
5.1 Description of the Subtelomere-Telomere Theory 194
5.1.1 Limits in Cell Duplication Capacities 195
5.1.2 Probabilistic Relation Between Telomere Shortening and Replicative Senescence 199
5.1.3 Suggestions from the Yeast 200
5.1.4 Gradual Cell Senescence and Cell Senescence 204
5.1.5 Absence of Relation Between Longevity and Telomere Initial Length 209
5.2 Metabolic Changes in Aging Cells 214
5.3 Atrophic Syndrome 215
5.4 Limits in Cell Duplication Capacities and Other Effects of the Telomere-Subtelomere-Telomerase System Explained as a Gener... 216
5.5 The Telomere 222
5.6 The Telomerase Enzyme 225
5.7 The Subtelomere 227
5.8 The Heterochromatin Hood Over the Telomere 232
References 240
Chapter 6: Aging in the Human Species 255
6.1 Alterations Consequent to the Actions of the Telomere-Subtelomere-Telomerase System 255
6.1.1 Alterations of Cellular Metabolism 255
6.1.2 Alterations of Cell Turnover 257
6.2 Direct Aging 272
6.2.1 Endothelium 272
6.2.2 Skin 275
6.2.3 Olfactory Receptor Cells 276
6.2.4 Other Peripheral Sensory Neuronal Cells (Excluding Olfactory Receptor Cells) 276
6.2.5 Skeletal Muscle 277
6.2.6 Heart 277
6.2.7 Gastrointestinal System 279
6.2.8 Orofacial Tissues and Organs 280
6.2.9 Lungs 281
6.2.10 Kidneys 281
6.2.11 Pancreatic ?-cells 282
6.2.12 Bone and Joints 282
6.2.13 Liver 284
6.2.14 Hematopoietic Cells and Bone Marrow 285
6.2.15 Testes 285
6.3 Indirect Aging 285
6.3.1 Photoreceptor Cells 286
6.3.2 Neurons of the Central Nervous System 286
6.3.3 Auditory Neurons 286
6.3.4 Crystalline Lens 287
6.4 General Schemes 287
References 290
Chapter 7: The Elderly Subjects and Their Troubles 305
7.1 Evolutionary Classification of the Troubles of the Elderly 305
7.2 Age-Related Fitness Decline 308
7.3 Diseases Due to Genetic Alterations 311
7.4 Diseases Due to Genetic Alterations That Cause Aging-Like Syndromes 313
7.5 Diseases Deriving from `Extremes´ of the Ecological Niche and Relations with Other Living Beings 320
7.6 Diseases Caused by Mismatches 323
7.7 Diseases Caused by Mismatches That Speed Up Physiological Aging 327
7.8 Weight of Physiological Aging 336
References 340
Chapter 8: Prevention and Treatment of the Troubles of the Elderly 364
8.1 Rationality of the Evolutionary Approach 364
8.2 Prevention and Treatment of Diseases Identical or Similar at Any Age 365
8.3 Acceleration of Aging: Prevention and Treatment 366
8.4 Treatment of Physiological Aging 370
8.4.1 Telomerase Activation 371
8.4.2 Elimination of Senescent Cells 374
8.4.3 Anti-aging Substances and Methods 379
8.4.4 Genetic Modifications 386
8.4.5 Ethical Problems 390
8.5 Current Geriatrics and Society 392
8.6 Future Geriatrics and Society 393
References 396
Appendices 414
Appendix: Part A 414
Haploid Condition 414
Diploid Condition 420
Case Alpha (Different Effects in Heterozygous and Homozygous Conditions) 421
Case Beta (Recessive Gene) 421
Case Gamma (Dominant Gene) 421
Case Alpha (Different Effects in Heterozygous and Homozygous Conditions) 422
Case Beta (Recessive Gene) 423
Case Gamma (Dominant Gene) 423
Case Alpha (Different Effects in Heterozygous and Homozygous Conditions) 423
Case Beta (Recessive Gene) 423
Case Gamma (Dominant Gene) 424
Appendix: Part B 425
Reference 426