Mistakes, Errors and Failures across Cultures (eBook)

Foreword 5
Acknowledgments 8
Contents 9
Editors and Contributors 13
About the Editors 13
Contributors 14
Chapter 1: “There Is a Crack in Everything. That’s How the Light Gets in”: An Introduction to Mistakes, Errors and Failure as Resources 17
1.1 Introduction 18
1.2 Defining Mistake, Error and Failure 19
1.2.1 Defining Mistake from an Interdisciplinary Perspective 20
1.2.2 Defining Error from an Interdisciplinary Perspective 23
1.2.3 Defining Failure from an Interdisciplinary Perspective 29
1.3 Dealing with and Attitude Towards Mistakes, Errors and Failure 34
1.4 Mistakes, Errors and Failure in the Context of Positive and Optimal Functioning Research 37
1.5 Mistakes, Errors and Failure Across Cultures 39
1.5.1 Differences in the Understanding of Failure in the Economic Context of Japan, the USA and Germany 39
1.5.2 Cultural Context and Differences in the Understanding of Failure Using the Example of Chinese and Western Cultures 43
1.5.3 Cultural Dimensions as Relevant Factors for Error Understanding and Management 44
1.5.4 Cultural and Organisational Factors as Relevant Factors Influencing Each Other in Dealing with Errors 46
1.5.5 Differences in Safety Culture and Risk Perception and Their Effects Using the Example of Latin American and Non-Latin Construction Workers in the USA 47
1.6 The Contribution of This Book: Introducing the Content 50
References 57
Part I: Individual and Cultural Perspectives on Mistakes, Errors and Failure 64
Chapter 2: “Ever Tried. Ever Failed. No Matter. Try Again. Fail Again. Fail Better”. Life Crisis and Failure as a Resource 65
2.1 Introduction 66
2.2 Definition of Life Crisis 66
2.3 Impact of Life Crisis on Health 68
2.4 Impacts of Stressful or Critical Life Events on Perception as Mistakes or Failures 70
2.5 Case Studies 71
2.5.1 Case Study 1: Divorce and Job Loss as Catalyst for a Life Crisis 72
2.5.2 Case Study 2: Health Restrictions as a Trigger for a Life Crisis 74
2.5.3 Case Study 3: Migration and Perceived Educational Deficits as Factors Triggering a Life Crisis 76
2.5.4 Case Study 4: Flight, Migration and Loss of Loved Ones as Causative Factors for a Life Crisis 79
2.6 Discussion 80
2.7 Conclusion 81
2.8 Need for Future Research 82
References 83
Chapter 3: Communication About Communication in Love Letters: Addressing and Avoiding Failures, Mistakes, and Errors in Written Communication 88
3.1 Introduction 89
3.2 Research Methods 90
3.2.1 Sample 90
3.2.2 Research Analysis Methodology 91
3.2.3 Study Limitations 92
3.3 Findings 93
3.3.1 Writing Is Harder than Talking 93
3.3.2 Correcting Misunderstanding 94
3.3.3 Correspondence Gaps 95
3.3.4 Too Busy 96
3.3.5 Postal Problems 96
3.3.6 Too Tired 96
3.3.7 Other Explanations of Correspondence Gaps 96
3.3.8 Thanks for Writing 97
3.3.9 Why This Letter Is So Brief 98
3.4 Discussion 98
3.5 Conclusion 98
3.6 Directions for Future Research 99
3.7 Practical Implications 100
References 100
Chapter 4: Steely Dan’s Donald Fagen: A Case of Mistaken Self-Identity, Corrected by Self-Reformulation 103
4.1 Introduction 104
4.2 Theoretical Background 105
4.2.1 Bohemianism 105
4.2.2 Post-Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory 107
4.3 Methodology 108
4.4 Findings 109
4.4.1 Childhood and Adolescence (1948–1967) 109
4.4.2 Early Strivings to Early Dan (1967–1977) 110
4.4.3 Apex to Nadir (1977–1993) 112
4.4.4 Dan Mark II (1993–) 114
4.5 Conclusions and Recommendations for Further Research 114
References 116
Part II: Mistakes, Errors and Failure in Society 120
Chapter 5: Mistakes, Errors, and Failures in the Cultural Context of Aging 121
5.1 Introduction 121
5.2 Mistakes and Errors in Gerontological Research 122
5.2.1 General Bias in Response 123
5.2.2 Social Desirability Bias 123
5.2.3 Acquiescence Bias 124
5.2.4 Central Tendency Bias 125
5.3 Failures in Interventions, Policies, and Methods Among Older Populations 126
5.3.1 Culturally Diverse Meanings in Interventions 126
5.3.2 Transcultural Differences in Policies 127
5.3.3 Format Challenges for Interventions and Policies 128
5.4 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 130
References 132
Chapter 6: Doing the Unconventional, Doing ‘Dirty’ Work: The Stigmatization of Sexuality Work and Unforeseen Encounters with Love 136
6.1 Introduction 136
6.2 Contouring ‘Dirty’ Work 138
6.3 Stigma and Queer Work 143
6.4 The Research Project 145
6.5 Doing the Unconventional: Falling in Love 146
6.5.1 Biography 146
6.5.2 Perils in Sexuality Research: Encounters with Love 147
6.5.2.1 Case Study 1: Chris 147
6.5.2.2 Case Study 2: Kieran 150
6.6 Conclusion 152
References 153
Chapter 7: Qualities of Communication Failures in Hierarchical Relationships: A Theoretical Model for Conflict Prevention 156
7.1 Introduction 157
7.2 Theoretical Background 157
7.2.1 Communication and Communication Failures 157
7.2.2 Appraisal, Stress, Emotion and Failing Communication 158
7.2.2.1 The Culture-Dependent Nature of Emotions 159
7.2.3 Hierarchical Social Relationships 159
7.2.3.1 Characteristics of the Major–Minor Relationship 160
7.2.4 Theoretical Background in Attribution Theory and Cognitive Biases 163
7.2.5 Coping in Hierarchical Relationships 164
7.3 A Model of the Qualities of Communication Failures in Major–Minor Relationships 165
7.4 Applications and Conclusion 169
References 169
Chapter 8: On Being “Outside the Box” or Being “Inside”: Intercultural Communication, Relationship-Building and Identity Ascription Failures 172
8.1 Introduction 173
8.2 Erroneous Identity Ascriptions, Power and Failure of Intercultural Relationships 175
8.3 Methodology 177
8.4 Case Presentation 177
8.4.1 Setting 178
8.4.2 Organisational Context and Interactions 178
8.4.3 Individual Interactions at the Pool 179
8.5 A Question of Belonging and the Failure of Erroneous Identity Ascriptions 180
8.6 Intercultural Communication: The Failure of Relationship-Building 181
8.7 Access and Exclusion: Failure in Reframing New Boxes 183
8.8 Conclusions 185
8.9 Transforming Failure in Intercultural Communication and Relationship-Building Through Erroneous Identity Ascriptions 186
8.10 Recommendations 187
References 188
Chapter 9: Mistakes and Demise: Mikhail Gorbachev and the Dissolution of the Soviet Union 191
9.1 Introduction 191
9.2 Scholarly Interpretations 192
9.3 Gorbachev’s Reform Agenda 193
9.4 The Reform Pace Quickens 195
9.5 The Cross-Pressure Increases 197
9.6 The Conservative Turn 198
9.7 The August Coup Attempt 199
9.8 The Burden of the Past 200
9.9 The Mistakes and Failures 202
9.10 Epilogue 203
References 204
Part III: Mistakes, Errors and Failure in Organisations 207
Chapter 10: Practical Examples of Handling Mistakes at Work in Different Cultures 208
10.1 Introduction 209
10.2 If at First You Don’t Succeed 211
10.3 Was the Mistake Caused by a Faulty Process? 213
10.4 Never Exclude Anyone 215
10.5 My Friends Can Make Mistakes 216
10.6 Is This a Mistake or an Error? 218
10.7 Contingency Rules 220
10.8 Avoiding Mistakes Through Rituals 221
10.9 Conclusion 223
References 224
Chapter 11: A Systems Psychodynamic Perspective on Conflict and Failure at Work 226
11.1 Introduction 227
11.2 Purpose and Aim 228
11.2.1 Systems Psychodynamics and Group Relations 228
11.2.2 Conflict and Systems Psychodynamics 230
11.2.3 Research Methodology 231
11.2.4 Findings and Discussion 232
11.2.4.1 The Love for Germany and a German Girlfriend 232
11.2.4.2 Terrorism 236
11.3 Conclusions 238
11.4 Recommendations for Future Research and Practice 239
References 239
Chapter 12: Resilience to Emotional Distress in Response to Failure, Error or Mistakes: A Positive Psychology Review 243
12.1 Introduction 244
12.2 Theoretical Background of the Impact of Failure Experiences in Organisations 244
12.2.1 Fear 244
12.2.2 Fear in the Workplace 246
12.2.3 Fear of Failure 247
12.2.4 How to Recover from Failure, Error or Mistakes 248
12.3 Positive Psychology 249
12.4 Resilience 250
12.4.1 Conceptualisation of Resilience 251
12.4.2 Resilience-Based Approaches 253
12.5 The Bi-dimensional Framework (BDF) for Resilience Research 254
12.6 Implications for Psychological Resilience-Building Interventions in Response to Failure, Error or Mistakes 255
12.6.1 Resilience-Building Interventions on Individual Level 255
12.6.1.1 Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 255
12.6.1.2 Master Resilience Training (MRT) 256
12.6.1.2.1 Building Mental Toughness 256
12.6.1.2.2 Building Signature Strengths 257
12.6.1.2.3 Building Strong Relationships 257
12.6.2 Resilience-Building Interventions on Group Level 258
12.6.3 Resilience-Building Interventions on Organisational Level 258
12.7 Chapter Summary 259
References 260
Chapter 13: Errors and Failures in European Banking: A Cultural Perspective 265
13.1 Introduction 266
13.2 Conduct Risk Plays a Central Role in the Current Debate on Financial Systems Stability and Efficiency 267
13.3 At the Root of Misconduct, There Are Errors and Inadequacies in Individual and Organization Behaviours, as well as in Policies, Practices and Management Procedures 269
13.4 Errors’ Comprehension and Management Framework Is Represented by Risk Culture 270
13.5 National Cultures Influence Organizations’ Error Perception and Reaction to It 273
13.6 Errors Do Not Depend Only on the People Who Make or Allow Them but also on the Cultural and Organizational Contexts Where They Occur 274
13.7 Inside an Organization, There Might Be Different Risk Cultures Which Underlie Widely Differing Errors Philosophy 276
13.8 Do Errors and Inadequacies Affect Banks’ Reputation? 278
13.9 Control Authorities Make Mistakes Too 279
13.10 Errors’ Management Requires a Multidisciplinary Approach 281
13.11 Good Error Management Practices Could Represent an Efficient and Effective Management Tool 282
References 283
Chapter 14: Turning Bicultural Critical Incidents into Inclusive Bicultural Identities and Organizations in US Subsidiaries in Japan 287
14.1 Introduction 288
14.2 Theoretical Foundations, Concepts, and Models 289
14.2.1 Respect, Trust, and Transformative Identity Development in Bicultural Businesses 289
14.2.2 Learning from Mistakes, Errors, and Failures in Bicultural Organizations 291
14.2.3 Critical Incident Techniques (CIT) for MEF Analysis in Bicultural Organizations 292
14.2.4 Intercultural Communication Competency Applied in Bicultural Organizations 292
14.2.5 Japanese and US Cultural Analysis Models and Materials 293
14.3 Method 294
14.3.1 Data Criteria for Selection of CI 294
14.3.2 Our CI Analysis and Interpretation Process 295
14.4 Results 295
14.4.1 Leadership and Managerial Roles: “Yankee Go Home!” 295
14.4.2 Motivating Local Employees: “Reward the Best Salesman as a Team Role Model” 296
14.4.3 Japanese and American Communication Styles: “I can’t stand that ‘tatemae’!” 297
14.5 Discussion and Implications 298
14.5.1 Discussion 298
14.5.2 Implications 300
14.6 Limitations 300
14.7 Conclusion 300
References 301
Chapter 15: Error-Culture in Value-Based Organizations: A Christian Perspective 305
15.1 Introduction 306
15.2 Focus on Mistakes 307
15.3 Focus on Value-Based Organizations 309
15.4 Focus on Moral Mistakes 310
15.5 Human Dignity and Limits as a Point of View 310
15.6 Focus on Responsibility 312
15.7 Focus on Justice and Mercy 313
15.8 Principles of Christian Mistakes-Culture 316
15.9 Conclusion 317
References 318
Chapter 16: Institutional Moral Failure: Emotional Intelligence and Practical Reason Serving Justice 320
16.1 Introduction 321
16.2 Culture 321
16.3 Moral Failure as Construct 323
16.4 Social Sin and Structural Evil 323
16.5 Emotional Intelligence and Practical Reason 324
16.6 Historical Context 326
16.6.1 Learning from Human Sciences About Shame 327
16.6.2 Learning in the Past: Human Rights 328
16.6.3 Learning in the Present: Victims 329
16.6.4 Learning from the Christian Tradition 330
16.7 Cultural Change and Hope 331
16.8 Conclusion 332
References 332
Chapter 17: Against Forgetting Serious Mistakes, Errors and Failures: The Long Learning Process of the Catholic Church in Germany in Dealing with Sexual Abuse of Minors and Vulnerable Adults 334
17.1 Starting Point: One Could Have Known 335
17.2 Loss of Confidence 336
17.3 Specific Risk and Structural Characteristics of the Church 337
17.3.1 Structural Abuse of Power 338
17.3.1.1 Cultural Violence 338
17.3.2 Clericalism 339
17.3.3 Coalitions, Loyalties and Dependencies 339
17.4 The Defence of Responsibility 341
17.5 Missing Liability 341
17.6 It Is a Mistake That… 342
17.7 Willingness to Listen 344
17.7.1 Listening Is a Leadership Issue 344
17.7.2 Listening Is a Theme of Faith 345
17.8 Conclusion 346
References 347
Part IV: Mistakes, Errors and Failure in Education 350
Chapter 18: Failures, Errors, and Mistakes: A Systematic Review of the Literature 351
18.1 Introduction 352
18.2 The State of Failure Use 352
18.3 The State of Failure Definitions 353
18.4 Method 354
18.4.1 Search Process and Criteria 354
18.4.2 Data Analysis 355
18.4.3 Limitations 356
18.4.4 Results 356
18.4.5 Our Research 359
18.5 Conclusion and Recommendations 362
References 363
Chapter 19: Low-Socioeconomic Status Students Turn Their Academic Failure to Success: A Synthesis of Qualitative Research 367
19.1 Introduction 368
19.2 Literature Review 369
19.3 Method 371
19.3.1 Data Collection 371
19.3.2 Data Analysis 372
19.4 Results 372
19.4.1 Contributing Factors Linked to Academic Success 373
19.4.1.1 Supportive Influence from Others 373
19.4.1.1.1 Family and Extended Family’s Support 373
19.4.1.1.2 School Support 373
19.4.1.1.3 Community Support 374
19.4.1.2 Motivation 375
19.4.1.2.1 Self-Motivation 375
19.4.1.2.2 Motivation from Outside Sources 375
19.4.1.2.3 Overcoming Negative Influence from Others 376
19.4.1.2.4 Adjusting to a New Culture 377
19.4.1.3 Learning Strategies 377
19.4.1.3.1 Time Management 377
19.4.1.3.2 Applications 378
19.5 Discussion 378
19.5.1 Supportive Influence from Others 378
19.5.2 Motivation 380
19.5.2.1 Overcoming Negative Feedback from Others 381
19.5.2.2 Adjusting to a New Culture 381
19.5.3 Learning Strategies 381
19.5.4 Academic Failure Turned into Success 382
19.6 Limitations 383
19.7 Conclusion 383
References 384
Chapter 20: Errors and Mistakes in Foreign Language Learning: Drawing Boundaries from the Discourse of Argentine Teachers 387
20.1 Introduction 388
20.2 The Error Throughout the Literature of Foreign Language Teaching: A Polysemic Construct 389
20.2.1 Errors, Failures, and Mistakes in Foreign Language Teaching 389
20.2.2 The Sociolinguistic Perspective: Linguistic Variation as the Natural State of Languages 392
20.3 Development 394
20.3.1 Methodology 394
20.3.2 First Results 394
20.4 Final Considerations 398
References 400
Part V: Mistakes, Errors and Failure in Psychology, Therapy and Counselling 403
Chapter 21: Psychodynamic Therapy: A Cross-Cultural and Generational Failure 404
21.1 Introduction 405
21.2 A Brief Explanation of Key Points in Klein’s, Winnicott’s and Fairbairn’s Work Which Is Used in Psychodynamic Therapy 406
21.2.1 Melanie Klein 406
21.2.1.1 The ‘Paranoid-Schizoid’ and ‘Depressive’ Positions 406
21.2.2 Donald Fairbairn 407
21.2.2.1 The Object-Seeking Libido 407
21.2.2.2 Repression 408
21.2.2.3 The Spitting of the Ego 408
21.2.3 Donald Winnicott 408
21.2.3.1 The Holding Environment 409
21.2.3.2 The Transitional Object 409
21.2.3.3 True and False Self 409
21.3 African Collectivism 410
21.3.1 Collectivism Versus Individual Caregiving Systems 410
21.4 The ‘Cut and Paste’ Generation (Postmillennials) 411
21.5 Two Case Studies: Failures in Psychodynamic Therapy 412
21.5.1 Thato 412
21.5.2 James 415
21.6 Conclusion 416
References 417
Chapter 22: Transcultural Sensitivity: A Way to Prevent Mistakes, Errors, and Failures in Psychotherapeutic and Psychiatric Treatment of Migrants 419
22.1 Introduction 420
22.2 Global Migration 420
22.2.1 The Power of the Migration Background 421
22.2.2 Mental Effects of Migration 422
22.2.3 The Issue of Differences in Expression, Comprehension, and Culture 423
22.2.4 Culturalization 425
22.2.5 Risk Factors for Migrants 425
22.3 Case Studies 426
22.3.1 Case Study 1 Treatment Errors in Practice 426
22.3.2 Potential Treatment Errors Regarding Trauma Patients 427
22.3.3 Case Study 2: Treatment Errors Regarding Trauma Patients 428
22.3.4 Stereotypes 429
22.3.5 Transcultural Sensitivity 429
22.4 The Göttinger Concept 431
22.5 Summary 432
References 433
Chapter 23: The Success and Failures of Michael Jackson. A Psychobiography Through the Lens of the Trickster Archetype 437
23.1 Introduction 438
23.2 Archetype Theory 439
23.2.1 The Trickster Archetype 439
23.3 Leadership, Leadership Stories, Success and Failure 441
23.4 Research Methodology 442
23.4.1 Sampling 442
23.4.2 Data Collection and Analysis 443
23.5 The Trickster Archetype in Michael Jackson’s Life 443
23.6 Acknowledging the Trickster in Michael Jackson’s Artistic Leadership: Success and Failure 450
23.7 Conclusions and Recommendations 451
References 452
Chapter 24: The Cognitive Bias in Cross-Cultural Design 456
24.1 Introduction 456
24.2 Cognitive Bias 457
24.2.1 The Type and Mechanism 457
24.2.2 The Connection with User-Centered Design 459
24.3 Cross-Cultural Influence in Human Cognition 459
24.3.1 Attention 460
24.3.2 Perception 461
24.3.3 Interpretation 461
24.3.4 Action Selection 462
24.4 Cross-Cultural Design 463
24.4.1 Appearance 463
24.4.2 Navigation 464
24.4.3 Metaphor 465
24.4.4 Mental Model 466
24.4.5 Interaction 467
24.5 Cross-Cultural Design Process Based on Cognitive Bias 467
24.5.1 The Consideration of Users’ Cognitive Bias in Design Processing 467
24.5.2 The Reduction of Designers’ Cognitive Bias in Design Processing 468
24.6 Conclusion 468
References 469
Part VI: Mistakes, Errors and Failure in Law, Justice and Crime 474
Chapter 25: Errors and Failures in Forensic Practice 475
25.1 Introduction 475
25.2 What Is “Forensic”? 476
25.3 What Is Error? 477
25.3.1 Practitioner Error 479
25.3.2 Instrument Error 480
25.3.3 Statistical Error 481
25.3.4 Method Error 481
25.4 Metacognition 482
25.5 Patternicity 484
25.5.1 Confirmation Bias 485
25.6 Improving Practice and Reducing Error 486
25.6.1 A Culture of Scientific Thinking 486
25.6.2 A Culture of Education and Training 487
25.6.3 A Culture of Evidence Not Belief 489
25.7 Error as a Resource 490
25.8 Conclusions 492
References 492
Chapter 26: Failures in Wildlife Crime Eradication and Strategies Forward 495
26.1 Introduction 495
26.2 Failures in Wildlife Crime Combat in Different National and Cultural Contexts 496
26.3 Strategies to Transform Failures in Combatting Wildlife Crime 501
26.3.1 International Level 503
26.3.2 National Level 505
26.3.3 Local Level 506
26.4 Conclusions 507
References 508
Part VII: Mistakes, Errors and Failure in Medicine 513
Chapter 27: Safety 3.0 and the End of the Superstar Clinician 514
27.1 The Ecosystem of Clinical Safety 515
27.1.1 Medicine as the Noble Profession 515
27.1.2 Challenged by Increasing Complexity of Care 516
27.1.3 Organizational Culture: An Important Context for Addressing and Improving Error Rates in Patient Care 516
27.2 The Safety Challenges of Modern Medicine 517
27.2.1 Safety Case Study: Cardiopulmonary Arrests and Avoidable Admissions to Critical Care 518
27.3 Frameworks for Continuous Systems Improvement 519
27.4 Safety of Complex Systems 520
27.4.1 Understanding Interdependencies 520
27.4.2 The Cynefin Framework as a Way to Understand and Manage the Terrain 521
27.4.3 Triple Modular Redundancy as a Technological Model for Working of Teams 523
27.5 How Patients Are Changing the  Safety Culture in Healthcare 525
27.5.1 Moving the Safety Focus from Clinicians to Patients 525
27.5.2 Self-Preservation as a Driver for Safety 525
27.5.3 Agency and Ownership Facilitating Change 525
27.5.4 Human Sensors and the Importance of a Personal ‘Normal’ 526
27.5.5 Examples for Patient Powered Safety in Management of Chronic Illness 526
27.5.6 Patient Powered Safety Applications in Hospital 527
27.6 Building a Safety Culture Fit for Complex Challenges Through Distributive Networks: Safety 3.0 527
References 529
Chapter 28: Empowerment: Error Management Through Cultural Change in Medicine 535
28.1 From Research to Policy: Origins of Error Management in Medicine 535
28.2 A Successful Example: Saving 28,000 Lives 536
28.3 From Policy to Implementation: The Role of Empowerment 537
28.4 The Success of Checklists 538
28.5 Error Management and Communication Tools Used in Our Institution 540
28.6 The Role of Cultural Change: How to Implement 542
28.7 Reaching the Second Half of the Chessboard 543
References 544
Chapter 29: Humorous Handling of Mistakes: A Personality or Culture-Specific Trait to Combat Adverse Health Effects? 545
29.1 Introduction 546
29.2 Mistakes, Emotions and Stress 547
29.2.1 Mistakes and Errors in Daily Life 547
29.2.2 A Closer Look: The Connection of Mistakes and Emotions 548
29.2.3 Effects of Humour on Emotions and Stress 549
29.3 Coping Associated with Humour 550
29.3.1 Humour and Culture 551
29.3.2 Humour Embedded in Personality Traits 552
29.3.3 Humour and Coping: Empirical Evidence 553
29.3.4 Humour and Positive Psychology 555
29.4 Conclusion 556
References 556
Part VIII: Mistakes, Errors and Failure in Traffic and Aviation 561
Chapter 30: Mistakes, Errors and Failures: Their Hidden Potential in Cultural Contexts – The Power of a Professional Culture 562
30.1 Introduction 563
30.2 Identifying a Local Professional Culture 565
30.3 A Culture of Safety 568
30.4 Can an Organization Inculcate the Wrong Safety Culture? 568
30.5 Applying the “Just Culture” Construct to Encourage Error Reporting 569
30.6 Complexity of the System as a Factor in Making and Learning from Errors 570
30.7 Incident Reports 571
30.8 Counting Errors Is Not Enough 573
30.9 Self-Preservation May Deter Error Reporting 574
30.10 A Knowledge Management System Enabling Error Learning 575
30.11 So What Are the Benefits of an Error? 576
30.11.1 Emotional Labour of Error Reporting 577
30.11.2 Reporting Platform 578
30.11.3 Competing Demands 578
30.11.4 Incentives 579
30.12 Conclusion 580
References 581
Chapter 31: Leader Inquiry as a Method for Open Error Communication in Aviation and Beyond 584
31.1 Introduction 585
31.2 How Effective Is CRM Teamwork in Practice? 589
31.3 CRM: A Lot Has Been Achieved 590
31.4 What Comes First? 591
31.5 Ranks Are a Problem 593
31.6 Hierarchy Comes Before Safety 594
31.7 The Role of the Commander 594
31.8 Decision-Making 595
31.9 Emergencies 596
31.10 Aviation Culture 598
31.11 The Creative Problem-Solver 598
References 600
Chapter 32: Cultural Differences-Induced Mistakes in Driving Behaviour: An Opportunity to Improve Traffic Policy and Infrastructure 602
32.1 Introduction 602
32.2 Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture and Their Impact on Driving Behaviour 603
32.3 Other Theories About Cultural Differences and Driving 605
32.4 Differences in Driving Behaviour Between Various Cultures 606
32.5 Driving Mistakes Related to the Traffic Environment 607
32.5.1 Driving Mistakes Because of the Incorrect Anticipation of People’s Behaviour 608
32.5.2 Driving Mistakes Because of Confusion About the Meaning of Traffic Signs 609
32.5.3 Driving Mistakes Because of Not Fulfilling Expectations of Others 610
32.6 How to Decrease the Mistakes Induced by Driving Culture Differences: Infrastructure Changes and New Policies 611
32.7 Conclusion 612
References 613
Epilogue: Errors, Mistakes and Failures in Anticipation of the Fourth Industrial Revolution 617
Error Scenario 1 618
Error Scenario 2 619
Error Scenario 3 619
Error Scenario 4 620
Error Scenario 5 621
Error Scenario 6 621
The Way Forward 622
References 623