Linguistic Semiotics (eBook)

Praise for Linguistic Semiotics 6
Contents 7
1 Introduction to Linguistic Signs 13
1.1 Humans and Signs 13
1.1.1 Man as Symbolic Animal 13
1.1.2 Man as Advanced Symbolic Animal 15
1.2 Sign 22
1.2.1 Concept of Sign 22
1.2.2 Types of Sign 25
1.2.2.1 Classification Based on Denoting Relationship (According to the Relationship Between Form and Content of a Sign) 26
1.2.2.2 Classification of Objective and Subjective Relations (Based on the Objective and Subjective Relations of Signs) 28
1.2.2.3 Classification of Symbolic Thinking Relationships (Based on the Way of Symbolic Thinking) 31
1.2.3 Sign Process and Sign Field 32
1.2.3.1 Thought Field 34
1.2.3.2 Cultural Field 34
1.2.3.3 Psychological Field 35
1.3 Language and Sign 35
1.3.1 The Nature and Definitions of Language 35
1.3.1.1 Language as a Special Social Phenomenon 35
1.3.1.2 Language as a Unified Communicative Tool of the Society 37
1.3.1.3 Language as an Important Tool of Human Thought 38
1.3.2 Classification of Language 44
1.3.3 Language Is a Sign System 45
1.3.4 Language as a Special System of Signs 46
1.3.4.1 Arbitrariness 46
1.3.4.2 Stability 48
1.3.4.3 Evolubility 49
1.3.4.4 Universality 49
1.3.4.5 Primacy 50
1.3.4.6 Systematicity 50
1.3.4.7 Compatibility 51
1.3.4.8 Multi-Meaningfulness 52
1.3.4.9 Productivity 54
1.3.4.10 Openness 54
1.3.4.11 Stratification 55
1.3.4.12 Sociality 57
1.3.4.13 Dependability 58
1.3.4.14 Formulability 59
1.3.4.15 Displacement 60
1.3.4.16 Economy 61
1.3.4.17 Colorability 61
1.3.4.18 Generality and Fuzziness 62
1.3.4.19 Operationality 63
1.3.4.20 Fallibility 64
References 65
2 Introduction to Linguistic Semiotics 66
2.1 Linguistics 66
2.1.1 The Object of Linguistics 66
2.1.1.1 The Scientificity of Linguistics 66
2.1.1.2 The Object of Linguistics 67
2.1.2 Classification of Linguistics 70
2.1.2.1 General Linguistics and Specific Linguistics 70
2.1.2.2 Internal Linguistics and External Linguistics 70
2.1.2.3 Diachronic Linguistics and Synchronic Linguistics 71
2.1.2.4 Comparative Linguistics and Contrastive Linguistics 72
2.1.2.5 Theoretical Linguistics and Applied Linguistics 72
2.2 Semiotics 73
2.2.1 Traditions of Semiotics: An Overview 74
2.2.1.1 In the West 74
2.2.1.2 In China 76
2.2.2 The Establishment of Semiotics 78
2.2.2.1 Origins of Modern Semiotic Theories 78
2.2.2.2 The Establishment of Modern Semiotics 80
2.2.3 Classification of Semiotics 80
2.2.4 Branches of Semiotic Studies 82
2.2.4.1 Trichotomy of Semiotics 82
2.2.4.2 Research Orientation and Main Schools of Semiotics 83
2.2.5 The Significance of Semiotic Studies 84
2.3 Linguistic Semiotics 85
3 The Binary Opposition of Linguistic Signs 89
3.1 The Status of Language in Speech Acts 89
3.2 Features of Langue and Parole 91
3.2.1 Features of Langue 91
3.2.2 Features of Parole 92
3.2.3 Relations Between Langue and Parole 93
3.3 The Binary Opposition Between Langue and Parole 93
4 The Hierarchy of Linguistic Signs 97
4.1 The Hierarchical Approach in a Broad Sense 97
4.2 The Hierarchical Approach in a Narrow Sense 98
4.2.1 The Ontological Approach 100
4.2.2 The Methodological Approach 102
4.2.2.1 Phonological Hierarchy 102
4.2.2.2 Morphological Hierarchy 103
4.2.2.3 Syntactic Hierarchy 104
4.2.2.4 Lexical–Semantic Hierarchy 104
4.2.3 The Epistemological Approach 105
4.2.3.1 Expressive Level 105
4.2.3.2 Content Hierarchy 106
4.3 The Basic Levels of Linguistic Signs 108
4.3.1 Syntactic Relation 109
4.3.2 Semantic Relation 110
4.3.3 Pragmatic Relation 111
4.3.3.1 Restriction 111
4.3.3.2 Selection 111
4.3.3.3 Economy 111
References 112
5 Meaning of Linguistic Signs 113
5.1 Different Views Toward the Meaning of Linguistic Signs 113
5.1.1 The Methodological Approach to Meaning 114
5.1.1.1 Hypothesis-Deduction Method 114
5.1.1.2 Analytic-Induction Method 116
5.1.2 The Ontological Approach to Meaning 123
5.1.2.1 The Dyadic Model 123
5.1.2.2 The Triadic Model 124
5.1.2.3 The Semiotic Triangle 125
5.1.2.4 The Semantic Trapezoid and the Semantic Quadrangle 125
5.1.3 The Epistemological Approach to Meaning 126
5.1.3.1 The Truth Value Theory 126
5.1.3.2 The Theory of Identity 127
5.1.3.3 The Speech Act Theory 127
5.1.3.4 The Information Theory 128
5.2 The Hierarchical Approach to the Meaning of Linguistic Signs 129
5.2.1 Graphical Representation of the “Hierarchical Approach” 130
5.2.2 Interpretation of the “Hierarchical Approach” 131
5.2.2.1 Language is a Hierarchical System of Signs 131
5.2.2.2 Representation of the Four Elements of Sign 132
5.2.2.3 About Denotation and Referentation 134
6 Reference of Linguistic Signs 136
6.1 Meaning and Reference 136
6.1.1 The Opposition of Two Views 136
6.1.2 Historical Evolution 137
6.1.3 Relations Between Meaning and Reference 138
6.1.3.1 Paradoxes Between Meaning and Reference 138
6.1.3.2 Causes of the Paradoxes 140
6.1.3.3 Mutual Restrictions Between Meaning and Reference 141
6.1.3.4 Establishment of the Relations Between Meaning and Reference 142
6.2 Features and Hierarchical Types of Reference 145
6.2.1 The Referentiality of Words 145
6.2.1.1 The Referentiality of Nouns 145
6.2.1.2 The Referentiality of Pronouns 146
6.2.2 The Hierarchy of Referential Relations 148
6.2.2.1 Abstract Referential Relations and Specific Referential Relations 148
6.2.2.2 Meta-Linguistic Referential Relations and Objective Referential Relations 149
6.2.2.3 Initial Referential Relations and Acquisition Referential Relations 150
Reference 151
7 Relations Between Linguistic Signs 152
7.1 Syntagm 153
7.1.1 Definition of Syntagm 153
7.1.2 Features of Syntagm 154
7.2 Paradigm 155
7.2.1 Definition of Paradigm 155
7.2.2 Features of Paradigm 155
7.3 Opposition and Connection Between Syntagm and Paradigm 158
7.4 Constraints on Paradigm and Syntagm 162
7.4.1 Constraints on Paradigm 162
7.4.1.1 Constraints on Paradigm from the Perspective of Formation 162
7.4.1.2 Constraints on Paradigm from the Perspective of Application 167
7.4.2 Constraints on Syntagm 171
7.4.2.1 Constraints on Syntagm from the Perspective of Composition 171
7.4.2.2 Constraints on Syntagm from the Perspective of Application 175
8 Synchrony and Diachrony of Linguistic Signs 182
8.1 The Relation Between Synchrony and Diachrony 182
8.1.1 Ferdinand de Saussure’s Views 182
8.1.1.1 The Second Bifurcation 182
8.1.1.2 Synchronic Axis and Diachronic Axis 183
8.1.1.3 Synchronic Linguistics and Diachronic Linguistics 183
8.1.1.4 Differences Between the Two Kinds of Facts Illustrated by Comparison 184
8.1.1.5 Differences Between Synchrony and Diachrony 185
8.1.2 Dialectical Views 185
8.2 Synchronic Approaches to Linguistic Signs 188
8.2.1 The Importance of Synchrony 188
8.2.1.1 The Synchrony of Linguistic Signs Is a Scientific Abstraction 189
8.2.1.2 The Synchrony of Language Is the Cornerstone of the Existing Value of Linguistic Elements 189
8.2.1.3 Process Cannot Replace System 189
8.2.1.4 Diachronic Facts Are not Directed Toward Changing the System 190
8.2.1.5 The Perspective of Synchronic Research Is Holistic 190
8.2.1.6 Language Change Can Only Originate in Parole 190
8.2.2 Panchrony of Linguistic Signs 191
8.3 Diachronic Approaches to Linguistic Signs 192
8.3.1 Evolution as a Universal Feature of Linguistic Signs 192
8.3.1.1 Duality of Linguistic Signs 192
8.3.1.2 Language as a Developing Social Phenomenon 193
8.3.2 Factors Underlying the Evolution of Language 195
8.3.2.1 External Factors 195
8.3.2.2 Internal Factors 199
8.4 Laws of Development of Linguistic Signs 204
8.4.1 Universal Laws of Language Development 204
8.4.1.1 Gradualness of the Development of Linguistic Signs 204
8.4.1.2 Unbalancedness of the Development of Linguistic Signs 205
8.4.1.3 Improvingness of the Development of Linguistic Signs 205
8.4.1.4 Analogicality of the Development of Linguistic Signs 206
8.4.2 The Particularity of Linguistic Laws 206
8.4.2.1 Limitations of Linguistic Laws 206
8.4.2.2 Timeliness of Language Changes 207
8.4.2.3 Regionality of Language Changes 207
8.5 Contradictory Variation of Linguistic Signs 208
8.5.1 Assimilation and Dissimilation 208
8.5.1.1 Assimilation 208
8.5.1.2 Dissimilation 209
8.5.2 Adding and Removing 210
8.5.3 Combination and Separation 211
9 Functions of Linguistic Signs 213
9.1 An Introduction to Functionalism 213
9.1.1 Origins of Functionalism 213
9.1.1.1 Psychological and Linguistic Foundations of Functionalism 213
9.1.1.2 The Prague School 215
9.1.1.3 Western Linguistic Schools 218
9.1.2 Functionalist Approaches to Signs 220
9.1.2.1 Bühler’s Functional Views 220
9.1.2.2 Jakobson’s Functional Views 221
9.1.2.3 Richards’s Functional Views 221
9.1.2.4 Lyons’s Functional Views 222
9.1.2.5 Halliday’s Functional Views 222
9.1.3 Rethinkings of Functions of Linguistic Signs 223
9.2 Social Factors and Formalism 225
9.2.1 Functions of Linguistic Signs and Social Factors 225
9.2.2 Formalism and Functionalism 228
9.3 Methodologies of the Functionalist Approaches 229
9.3.1 Three Laws 229
9.3.1.1 Dislocation 229
9.3.1.2 Suddenness 231
9.3.1.3 Holography 231
9.3.2 Four Principles 232
9.3.2.1 Optimization 232
9.3.2.2 Hierarchy 232
9.3.2.3 Instructiveness 233
9.3.2.4 Incompleteness 233
10 The Subjective Approach to Linguistic Signs 235
10.1 Syntactic Subject 236
10.2 Semantic Subject 237
10.2.1 Semantic Subject as A Substance 238
10.2.2 Coordination of Semantic Subject and Predicate 238
10.2.3 Distinctions Between Semantic Subject and Syntactic Subject 238
10.2.4 Semantic Subject with Different Sentence Structures 239
10.2.5 Types of Semantic Subject 241
10.3 Pragmatic Subject 242
10.3.1 The Psychological Subject 242
10.3.1.1 The Theme Stands for the Object of a Narrative 243
10.3.1.2 The Theme Represents the Starting Point or the Basis of a Narrative 243
10.3.1.3 The Theme Indicates Given Information 243
10.3.2 The Message Sender 244
10.3.3 The Speaker 245
11 The Dual Metaphorical View of Linguistic Signs 247
11.1 Common Features of Metaphor and Metonymy 248
11.1.1 Equivalence 248
11.1.2 Substitution 248
11.1.3 Transfer 249
11.1.4 Misplacement 250
11.2 Difference Features of Metaphor and Metonymy 250
11.2.1 “Similarity” Versus “Proximity” 251
11.2.2 “Vertical” Versus “Horizontal” 251
11.2.3 “Same Position” Versus “Different Position” 252
11.2.4 “Descriptive Function” Versus “Referential Function” 252
11.2.5 “Simile Reduction” Versus “Discourse Reduction” 253
11.3 Representations of Metaphor and Metonymy 254
11.3.1 Representations of Metaphor 254
11.3.1.1 Grammar 254
11.3.1.2 Semantics 254
11.3.1.3 Categorization 254
11.3.2 Representations of Metonymy 256
11.3.2.1 Conformity 257
11.3.2.2 Connectivity 257
12 The Converseness of Linguistic Signs 261
12.1 Converseness from the Perspective of Linguistic Semiotics 262
12.1.1 The Semantic Level 262
12.1.2 The Grammatical Level 264
12.1.3 The Logical Level 264
12.2 An Interpretation of Converse Relations 265
12.2.1 Synonymousness 265
12.2.2 Reverseness 266
12.2.3 Freeness and Symmetry 267
12.2.4 Independence in Dictionary Definition 267
12.2.5 Activeness in Actant Exchange 268
12.2.6 Non-compatibility 268
12.2.7 Bilateralness 269
12.2.8 Concatenation 269
12.2.9 Consistency 270
Reference 270
13 The Iconicity of Linguistic Signs 271
13.1 The Concept of Iconicity 271
13.1.1 Origin of the Term 271
13.1.2 Implications and Chinese Renderings of the Term 273
13.1.3 Definition of the Term 274
13.2 The Philosophical Basis of Iconicity 275
13.2.1 Traditional Philosophy 276
13.2.2 Cognitive Philosophy 276
13.2.3 Embodied Philosophy 277
13.3 Classification of Iconicity and Its Manifestation in Language 278
13.3.1 Imagic Iconicity 279
13.3.2 Diagrammatic Iconicity 279
13.3.2.1 Isomorphism 279
13.3.2.2 Automorphism 280
13.3.2.3 Motivation 280
13.3.3 Metaphoric Iconicity 285
13.3.3.1 Grammatical Metaphor 285
13.3.3.2 Conventional Metaphor 285
13.3.3.3 Poetic Metaphor 286
13.4 Iconicity and Phonetic Meaning 287
13.4.1 Phonetic Meanings of Vowels 288
13.4.2 Phonetic Meanings of Consonants 289
13.5 The Iconicity in Chinese Language and Culture 291
References 297
14 Two Decades of Semiotic Studies in China 298
14.1 Three Major Periods 298
14.1.1 The Starting Period (1980–1986) 298
14.1.2 The Maturing Period (1987–1993) 299
14.1.3 The Thriving Period (1994–2002) 299
14.2 Major Research Areas and Accomplishments 300
14.2.1 Researches on Basic Theories of Semiotics 300
14.2.1.1 Introduction and Study of Semiotic Theories from Abroad 300
14.2.1.2 Definition and Classification of Signs 301
14.2.1.3 Understanding on the Research Fields and Functions of Semiotics 303
14.2.2 Researches on Linguistic Semiotics 305
14.2.2.1 On Saussure’s Linguistic Semiotics 305
14.2.2.2 On Linguistic Signs 306
14.2.3 Researches on Applications of Semiotics 307
14.2.3.1 Applications of Semiotics in Sub-disciplines of Linguistics 307
14.2.3.2 Applications of Semiotics in Other Fields 308
14.2.4 Researches on Cultural and Literary Semiotics 308
14.2.4.1 Cultural Semiotics 308
14.2.4.2 Literary Semiotics 309
14.3 An Outlook of Future Research 310
15 A Bibliometric Analysis of Chinese Semiotics 312
15.1 Research Topic 312
15.2 Discipline Distribution 314
15.3 Core Authors 315
15.3.1 Determination of Core Authors 315
15.3.2 Analysis of Core Author Attributes 316
15.3.3 Analysis of the H-Index of Core Authors 316
15.4 Frequency of Citation of Core Authors 318
15.4.1 Total Frequency of Citation of Core Authors 318
15.4.2 Determination of Highly Cited Titles and Analysis of Their Frequency of Citation 318
15.5 Analysis and Discussion of Research Results 324
16 Representative Works of Chinese Semiotic Studies 326
16.1 Introduction to Theoretical Semiotics 326
16.1.1 Part I: General Introduction 327
16.1.2 Part II: Linguistic Semiotics 328
16.1.3 Part III: General Semiotics 330
16.1.4 Part IV: Cultural Semiotics 334
16.1.5 Summary 336
16.2 Modern Linguistic Semiotics 337
16.2.1 Part I: An Introduction to Linguistic Semiotics 338
16.2.2 Part II: Theoretical Origins of Modern Linguistic Semiotics 339
16.2.3 Part III: Semiotic Studies of Text 343
16.2.4 Part IV: Semiotic Studies of Sentence 346
16.2.5 Part V: Semiotic Studies of Metaphor 347
16.2.5.1 Transformation of Semiotic Categories 348
16.2.5.2 Carrier of Metaphor at the Level of Word Signs 349
16.2.5.3 Semiotic Essence of Metaphorical Similarity 350
16.2.6 Summary 351
16.3 Semiotics: Principles and Problems 352
16.3.1 Reflection on the Binary Relationship Between Saussure and Peirce 354
16.3.2 Meaning-Based Semiotic Concept 356
16.3.3 “Neutral” Concept Driven by Motivational Motivation and Structural Motivation 358
16.3.4 Summary 364
16.4 Basic Issues in the Development of Modern Chinese Semiotics 365
16.4.1 Neutralization of Traditional Chinese Signs 365
16.4.2 The Neutralization Trend of Modern Semiotic Studies in China 366
16.4.3 Re-understanding Saussure Remains an Important Subject of Chinese Semiotics 368
16.4.4 Relationship Between Chinese and Western Semiotic Theories: From Monologue to Dialogue 368
16.4.5 Shift from Pure Theory Research to the Combination of Signification Theory and Signification Practice 370
17 The Historical Mission of Chinese Semiotics 371
17.1 The Semiotic Spheres of Chinese Semiotics 372
17.2 The Academic Philosophy of Chinese Semiotics 375
References 378
References 379