Handbook of Parenting and Child Development Across the Lifespan (eBook)

Dr Matthew Sanders is a Professor of Clinical Psychology, founder of the Triple P ̶ Positive Parenting Program and Director of the Parenting and Family Support Centre at the University of Queensland. He is considered a world leader in the development, evaluation, and global dissemination of evidence-based parenting programs. He has held visiting appointments at multiple universities, including the University of Auckland, University of Manchester, Glasgow Caledonian University, and the University of South Carolina. He has conducted a large number of high quality projects on the role of parenting in influencing developmental outcomes in children and adolescents. He has developed or co-developed a range of specific parenting programs. His work has been recognized with a number of international awards. He is a Fellow of the Australian Psychological Association, The New Zealand Psychological Association, and is former Honorary President of the Canadian Psychological Association. He has received a Trailblazer Award from the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy Special Interest Group on Parenting and Families, and a Distinguished Career Award from the Australian Psychological Association, the New Zealand Psychological Society and is an Inaugural Honorary Fellow of the Australian Association for Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. He is a Fellow of the Academy of Social Science in Australia, and the Academy of Experimental Criminology. He has received an International Collaborative Prevention Research Award from the Society for Prevention Science. He has received a Top Innovator Award and an Innovation Champion Award from Uniquest, the University of Queensland’s main technology transfer company. He is a former Queenslander of the Year. He is married to wife Trish and has two children and five grandchildren.A/Prof Alina Morawska is Deputy Director (Research) at the Parenting and Family Support Centre, The University of Queensland. Her research focuses on behavioural family intervention as a means for promoting positive family relationships, and the prevention and early intervention for young children at risk of developing behavioral and emotional problems. In particular, her focus is on improving the health and overall wellbeing of children and families. She has published extensively in the field of parenting and family intervention and has received numerous grants to support her research. She is a Director of the Australian Association for Cognitive and Behaviour Therapy Ltd. 

Preface 5
Acknowledgments 7
Contents 9
Part I: How Parents Influence Children’s Development 17
The Importance of Parenting in Influencing the Lives of Children 18
Introduction 18
Parenting Styles and Practices 19
The Influence of Parenting on Children’s Development, Well-Being, and Life Opportunities 20
Functions of Parenthood 20
Taking Care of Basic Needs 20
Emotional Care 20
Socialization 20
Providing Guidance 20
Providing Boundaries and Limits 21
Teaching Life Skills and Mentoring 21
Being a Child Advocate 22
Supporting Children’s Education 22
Moral and Spiritual Guidance 22
Parenting Tasks and Phases of Development 22
Parenting in Different Family Contexts 23
Social Ecology of Parenthood 24
Proximal Influences on Parenting 25
Personal Resources 25
Parental Self-Regulation 26
The Immediate Couple Relationship 26
The Interactional Context 27
Attachment Security 27
Parental Emotional Well-Being 28
Social Support 28
Relationships with Grandparents and Extended Family 29
Work Influences 29
Parental Physical Health 29
Access to Parent Education 29
Distal Influences on Parenting 30
Parents’ Family of Origin Childhood Experiences 30
Financial Resources and Income Disparity 30
Neighborhood Context 30
Cultural and Religious Contexts 31
Information Technology 31
Parenting in a Changing Environment 32
How Parenting Influences Different Areas of Child Development 32
Brain Development 32
Language and Communication 33
Social-Emotional Development 33
Peer Relationships 33
Schooling and Academic Success 34
Physical Health 34
Supporting Parents in Their Parenting Role 34
Implications 35
Research 35
Policy 36
Practice 36
Conclusions 36
References 37
Biological Factors in Parenting and Child Development 42
Introduction 42
Background on Biological Measures 43
Genetics 43
Neural Structures and Functions 44
Hormones 44
Attachment 45
Adverse Environments and Stress 47
Parents’ Biological Factors 51
Caveats and Future Directions 53
Implications for Policy and Practice 54
References 54
Parent–Child Relationships and Attachment 61
Introduction 61
Theoretical Background 61
A Model for Parent–Child Relationships 61
The Child’s Perspective: Child Attachment 62
Definition of Attachment 62
Development of an Attachment Relationship 62
Individual Differences in the Quality of Child Attachment 64
Child Attachment and Developmental Consequences 66
Assessment of Child Attachment 67
The Parent’s Perspective: Representations of the Child and Relationship 68
Parental Representations of the Child and the Relationship with the Child 68
Development of Parental Representations 68
Classifications of Parental Representations 69
Assessment of Parental Representations 70
Link Between Parental Representations and Child Attachment 71
Parent–Child Observed Interactions 71
Link Between Quality of Observable Parent–Child Interactions and Attachment Relationships 71
An Example: Parental Quality Interactions and Child Attachment Security 71
Parental Interactive Behavior and Disorganized Child Attachment 72
Conclusion, and Future Research and Implications 73
References 76
Social Learning Influences: Modelling, Instructions, Consequences 81
Introduction 81
Theoretical Background 81
Respondent Learning 82
Operant Learning 82
Vicarious Learning 83
Social Learning: An Integration of Learning Concepts 83
Evidence that Social Learning Processes Link Parenting to Child Development 84
Disruptive and Antisocial Behavior 84
Operant Learning of Disruptive Behavior 85
Operant or Cognitive Learning? 89
Bidirectional Influences 90
Summary 90
Anxiety 90
Anxiety Runs in Families 91
Respondent Learning 91
Vicarious Learning of Anxiety 92
Overprotective Parenting 93
Family Involvement in Treatment and Prevention 94
Summary 95
Prosocial Behavior 95
Vicarious Learning of Prosocial Behavior 96
Operant Learning of Prosocial Behavior 96
Bidirectional Influences 96
Strengths and Limitations of the Evidence Base and Future Directions for Research 97
Implications for Policy and Practice 98
Conclusions 99
References 103
Effects of the Parents’ Relationship on Children 111
Introduction 111
Theories of Couple Relationships and How They Impact on Children 112
An Ecological Model of Parental Relationships 112
Theories of How Couple Relationships Influence Children 114
Parental Separation and Family Instability 115
Parental Conflict 117
Positive Aspects of Parents’ Relationship and Effects on Children 118
Couple Interventions to Enhance Child Functioning 119
Couple Relationship Education for New Parents 119
The Couple Relationship and the Transition to Parenthood 119
Content and Outcomes of Couple Relationship Education for New Parents 120
Other Couple Interventions for Parents in Intact Families 124
Two Large-Scale Failures in Couple Relationship Education for Parents 125
Coparenting Interventions for Separated Parents 125
Some Key Issues in Use of Couple Interventions to Enhance Child Outcomes 126
Conclusions 127
References 128
The Role of Fathers in Supporting Children’s Development 135
Introduction 135
Brief History 135
Theoretical Models 136
Evidence for Processes Linking Fathers and Fathering to Areas of Child Development 139
Attachment 139
Social Development 140
Emotion-Related Parenting Practices and Children’s Emotional Development 141
Language 142
Cognitive Development 144
Executive Function 144
Atypical Behavioral Development 145
Internalizing Problems 146
Indirect Effects: Paternal Mental Health 147
Coparenting and Father Involvement 148
Translational Relations Between Fathering and Child Development 148
Other Cultures 149
Strengths and Limitations of the Evidence Base 150
Future Directions for Research 150
Implications for Policy and Practice 151
Conclusion 152
References 152
Trauma and Parenting: Considering Humanitarian Crisis Contexts 157
Introduction 157
Similarities and Differences Across Contexts 158
Similarities 158
Differences 158
The Importance of Parents: The Protective Shield 158
Parent Intervention 159
Natural Disasters 159
The Situation 159
Adverse Outcomes for Children 159
Risk 159
Individual Child/Youth-Level 159
Parent/Family-Level 160
Community-Level 161
Protective Factors 161
Individual Child-/Youth-Level 161
Parent/Family-Level 162
Community-Level 162
Parent Interventions 162
War 163
The Situation 163
Adverse Child Outcomes 163
Risk Factors 164
Individual Child/Youth-Level 164
Parent/Family-Level 165
Community-Level 166
Protective Factors 166
Individual Child/Youth-Level 166
Parent/Family-Level Factors 167
Community-Level 168
Parent Interventions 168
Forced Displacement 169
The Situation 169
Adverse Outcomes for Children 170
Risk Factors 170
Child/Youth-Level 170
Parent/Family-Level 171
Community-Level 172
Protective Factors 172
Child/Youth-Level 172
Parent/Family-Level 172
Community-Level 173
Parent Interventions 173
Limitations of Research Conducted in Humanitarian Contexts 174
Conclusions 174
References 175
Part II: The Effects of Parenting on Children’s Development 184
Parenting and Human Brain Development 185
Theoretical Background 185
Methods of Examining Brain Changes 186
Anatomy 186
Structural Images 186
Task Related Functional Imaging 187
Resting State Imaging 187
Individual Differences 187
Temperament 188
Genes and Environment 188
Development of Language and Attention 189
Language 189
Phonemes 189
Building Words and Sentences 190
Bilingualism 191
Reading 192
Attention and Self-Regulation 193
Alerting 194
Orienting 196
Development of Executive Control 197
Attention and the Control of Emotion 199
Executive Control During Adolescence 200
Genes and Parenting 201
Interventions 203
Limitations and the Future 204
Conclusions 205
References 205
Effects of Parenting on Young Children’s Language and Communication 212
Introduction 212
Theoretical Background of Parents’ Role in Promoting Children’s Language 213
How Parents Mediate the Child’s Language Learning Environment 214
Evidence for the Role of Parenting on Children’s Communicative Development 214
Factors Predicting Positive Parenting 215
Strength and Limitations of the Evidence Base 216
Evidence Based on Parenting Intervention Studies 217
Limitations in the Parenting Intervention Literature 218
Future Directions for Research 219
Implications for Policy and Practice in Parenting Interventions 220
Conclusions 222
References 223
The Effects of Parenting on Emotion and Self-Regulation 227
Introduction 227
Theoretical Background: Conceptual Definitions 228
What is Self-Regulation? 228
What Is Emotion Regulation? 229
The Nature and Significance of Self-Regulation and Emotion Regulation 229
Importance of Self-Regulation 229
Importance of Emotion Regulation 230
The Emergence of Self-Regulation and Emotion Regulation During Childhood 230
Development of Self-Regulation 231
Development of Emotion Regulation 233
Evidence for Effects of Parents and Parenting on Specific Areas of Child Development 234
Effects of Parenting on Children’s Self-regulation 234
Effects of Parenting on Children’s Emotion Regulation 237
Additional Influences on the Development of SR and ER 239
Interventions to Enhance Self-regulation in Children 241
Current Limitations and Future Research Directions 242
Implications for Policy and Practice 243
Conclusions 244
References 244
Peer and Sibling Relationships 251
Introduction 251
Impacts of Supportive Peer and Sibling Relationships 251
Impact of Supportive Peer and Sibling Relationships on Well-Being 252
Supportive Relationships Protect Against Adversity 253
Adverse Impacts of Peer and Sibling Relationships 254
Theoretical Background 255
Evidence for Effects of Parents and Parenting on Peer and Sibling Relationships 259
Evidence for Pathways of Parental Influence 259
Facilitative Parenting 261
Evidence of Effectiveness of Parenting Interventions for Peer and Sibling Relationships 262
Parenting and Family Interventions Targeting Sibling Relationships 263
Strengths and Limitations of the Evidence Base 263
Future Directions for Research 264
Implications for Policy and Practice 265
Conclusions 265
References 266
Schooling and Academic Attainment 273
Introduction 273
Theoretical Background 274
The Investment Model 274
The Family Stress Model 276
Parent Involvement in Learning and Education: A Developmental Perspective 278
Evidence for Effects of Parents and Parenting on Academic Attainment 280
Early Childhood and School Readiness, Mental Health and Academic Achievement 280
Later Childhood and Adolescence and Impact on Academic Attainment 285
Strengths and Limitations of the Evidence Base 286
Future Directions for Research/Implications for Policy and Practice 287
Conclusions 290
References 291
Children’s Health, Physical Activity, and Nutrition 298
Introduction 298
Child Chronic Health Conditions 299
Child Nutrition 300
Child Activity Levels 300
Theoretical Models: Understanding the Link Between Parenting and Child Health 300
Taking a Multidisciplinary Context-Based Perspective 301
From Parenting Behaviors and Beliefs to Child Health 303
Parental Modeling and Healthy Eating 304
Integrating Biological Mechanisms 305
Evidence for Effects of Parenting on Specific Areas of Child Development 306
Clinical Observations 306
Correlational Studies 307
Longitudinal Studies 307
Studies of Physiological Markers 308
Reviews and Meta-Analyses 308
Intervention Research 309
Strengths and Limitation of the Evidence Base 310
Future Directions for Research 310
Implications for Policy and Practice 311
Conclusions 312
References 315
Children with Developmental Disorders 321
Introduction 321
The Process of Diagnosis 321
Features of Some Developmental Disorders 322
Issues Related to the Parent 323
The Impact of Parenting on Development 325
The Theoretical Perspective 325
Parenting Practices and Child Development 327
Evidence Base for the Impact of Parenting on Child Development 334
Focus on Parents Taking Care of Their Own Needs 335
Conclusion 339
References 340
Part III: Determinants of Parenting 343
Child Characteristics and Their Reciprocal Effects on Parenting 344
Introduction 344
Changing Conceptualizations of Child Development and Parenting 344
Child Individuality 347
Age 347
Gender 347
Individual Differences in Temperament and Personality 347
Conceptualizations of Temperament 347
Stability of Temperament Over Time 349
Biological Underpinnings of Temperament 350
The Measurement of Temperament 351
Associations Between Temperament and Personality 351
‘One Size Fits All’? 352
Research Evidence 353
Temperament and Parenting 353
Direct Effects 354
Indirect Effects 354
Bidirectional Effects 355
Interactional Effects 356
Gender 359
Chronic Illness 359
Summary 360
Interventions Focusing on Child Individuality 361
Discussion 364
Child Individuality Matters 365
How Individual Differences Interact with Parenting 365
Temperament-Focused Interventions 366
Limitations and Future Directions 367
Lack of Ecological Focus 367
Predominance of Research on Western Middle-Class Samples 368
Neglect of Fathers 368
Biological Influences 368
Meaningfulness of Statistical Interaction Terms 369
Conclusion 369
References 370
Self-Regulation and Parental Mental Health 378
Introduction 378
Theoretical Background 378
Definitions and Terminologies 379
Children Growing Up with a Parent with Mental Health Difficulties 382
The Concept and Processes of Self-Regulation 382
Evidence for Determinants of Parenting 383
SMI and Self-Regulation: Examples from Schizophrenia 383
Building a Model of Self-Regulatory Processes, Parental Mental Health and the Family 384
Interpersonal Models of Self-Regulation and SMI 385
Moderating Effects 386
The Significance of Parental Mental Health: Sudden and Unexpected Changes Versus Long-Term Challenges 386
The Significance of Parental Mental Health: Mothers’ Versus Fathers’ Illnesses 387
Children’s Age and Gender 388
The Importance of Hearing the Views of Children, Families, and Health Professionals 388
Acknowledging the Subjectivity of Family Experience 389
Positive Experiences in Families Living with SMI 389
Individual and Family Resilience 390
Evidence-Based Practice: What the Evidence Tells Us 390
Clinical Effectiveness 391
Cost-Effectiveness 392
Intervention Acceptability 392
Future Directions for Research 392
Implications for Policy and Practice 394
Identifying Why So Few Interventions Are Offered 394
Engaging Families 394
Developing Practice 394
Engaging Health Services, Systems, and Policy Makers 395
Acknowledging Responsibilities for Child Protection 395
Fostering Interagency Collaboration 395
Working with Multifaceted Needs 396
Conclusion 396
References 397
Parental Cognitions: Relations to Parenting and Child Behavior 402
Introduction 402
Theoretical Models of Parental Cognitions 403
Parental Cognitions About the Child: Stable/Schema-Based 405
Parental Cognitions About the Child: Dynamic/Event-Dependent 410
Parental Cognitions About the Parenting Role 412
State of the Evidence: Strengths and Limitations 414
Future Directions and Implications 415
Conclusions 416
References 416
Family Structure and the Nature of Couple Relationships: Relationship Distress, Separation, Divorce, and Repartnering 422
Introduction 422
Theoretical Background 423
Process Model of the Determinants of Parenting 423
Family Systems Theory and Indirect Effect Models 423
Coparenting 424
Evidence for Determinants of Parenting 425
Relationship Distress in Parental Couples 425
Separation and Divorce Among Parents 428
Repartnering and Stepfamilies 430
Strengths and Limitations of the Evidence Base 433
Future Directions for Research 434
Implications for Policy and Practice 436
Intact Families 436
Divorced Families 439
Stepfamilies 440
Conclusions 440
References 441
Social Support and Relationships with Family and Friends 448
Introduction 448
Humans Are Fundamentally Social 448
Theories of Social Influence on Parenting 449
Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Framework 449
Developmental Psychopathology 450
Development Occurs Within Nested Contexts 450
The Dynamic Interplay of Physiological, Genetic, Social, Cognitive, Emotional, and Cultural Influences Across Time 451
Parenting is the Balance of Risk and Protective Factors 451
Development Processes are Lawful, Although Many of the Processes are Yet to be Discovered 452
Social Cognitive Theory 452
Supporting High-Risk Parents 453
Summary 454
Intergenerational Transmission of Parenting 454
Attachment Theory 455
The Transmission Gap 455
What is Transmitted Across Generations? 456
What are the Mechanisms and Mediators of Intergenerational Transmission of Parenting? 457
What Mediates the Transmission or Discontinuity of Parenting Across Generations? 458
Summary 458
Community and Neighborhood Influence on Parenting 459
The Influence of Family on Parenting 459
The Changing Structure of Families: Who is Raising the Children? 459
The Quality of the Marriage as a Social Determinant of Parenting 460
Three Principal Explanations for the Influence of Marriage on Parenting 460
Affective Spillover 460
Stress and Coping 461
Family Risk 461
Bringing the Baby Home 461
Domestic Violence and Parenting 462
Good Marriages Can Moderate Early Experiences 462
Summary 463
Grandmothers’ Influence on Parenting 463
Summary 464
Friends: Offline and Online 465
Natural Social Networks 465
Formal Helping Relationships to Support Parenting 465
Online Social Networks 466
Tend and Befriend 466
Summary 467
Strengths and Limitations of the Evidence 468
Future Direction of the Research 469
Big Data 469
Epigenetics 469
Social Media 470
Implications for Policy and Practice 470
Conclusion 470
References 471
Cultural Background and Religious Beliefs 476
Introduction 476
Theoretical Background and Evidence 478
Parental Ethnotheories of Development 478
Cultural Self-Construal 479
Socialization of Affect Expression 479
Self-Enhancement Versus Self-Improvement 480
Parental Control 480
Indigenous Parenting 481
Latino American: Familism 481
Respeto 481
Asian American: Filial Piety 481
Guan or Training 481
Shaming 482
African American 482
Migration and Acculturation Considerations 483
Socialization of Ethnic Identity 483
Acculturation 484
Religion and Religious Beliefs 485
Sanctification of Parenting 486
Christian Conservatism 486
Religiosity and Parenting Practices 487
Buddhism 487
Religion and Affect Valuation 488
Strengths, Limitations, and Future Directions 488
Implications for Policy and Practice 490
Conclusions 492
References 493
Work, Poverty, and Financial Stress 501
Theoretical Background 501
Poverty and Its Impact on Child Outcomes 501
Employment and Its Impact on Family 504
Evidence for Determinants of Parenting 508
Strengths and Limitations of the Evidence Base 509
Future Directions for Research 510
Implications for Policy and Practice 511
Conclusions 512
References 512
Long-Distance Parenting: The Impact of Parental Separation and Absence due to Work Commitments on Families 517
Introduction 517
Overview of Categories of Parental Absence due to Work Commitments 517
Long–Distance Commuting 517
Military Service and Deployment 518
Theoretical Background 518
Evidence for Determinants of Parenting: How Does Parental Absence Affect Parenting? 519
Impact on Parenting 519
Impact on Parental Mental Health 522
Impact on Use of Harsh and Coercive Discipline Practices and Risk of Child Maltreatment 524
Impact on the Couple and Coparenting Relationship 526
Impact on Children 527
Strengths and Limitations of the Evidence Base 531
Future Directions for Research 532
Implications for Policy and Practice 533
Conclusions 534
References 534
Communities, Neighborhoods, and Housing 540
Introduction 540
Theoretical Background 541
Evidence for Determinants of Parenting 543
Housing Characteristics 543
Neighborhood Characteristics 545
Community Characteristics 548
Strengths and Limitations of the Evidence Base 549
Future Directions for Research 550
Implications for Policy and Practice 550
Conclusions 551
References 552
Policies and Services Affecting Parenting 556
Introduction 556
Theoretical Background 556
The Changing Shape of the Family 556
Work–Life Balance 557
Family-Focused Policy 558
The US: A Liberal Welfare State Approach 559
Germany: Moving Beyond a Conservative Welfare Approach 560
Sweden: A Social Democratic Approach 560
Supporting the Vulnerable 560
Parenting Specific Policy 562
Strengths and Limitation of the Evidence Base 564
Future Directions for Research 565
Conclusions: Implications for Policy and Practice 566
References 567
Part IV: Tasks and Challenges of Parenting and Child Development Across the Lifespan 570
Preparation for Parenthood 571
Introduction 571
Specific Tasks and Challenges when Preparing for Parenthood 572
Biological Changes 572
Cognitive Changes 572
Affective Changes 575
Challenges and Changes in the Couple and Other Social Relationships 576
Involvement and Preparation of Fathers During Pregnancy 578
Interventions to Support Parents in Preparing for Parenthood 579
Future Directions for Research 581
Implications for Policy and Practice 582
Conclusions 583
References 583
Parenting of Infants and Toddlers 589
Introduction 589
Theoretical Background 590
Changes in Parenting Tasks as the Young Child Develops 592
Physical Care and Safety 592
Nutrition 593
Motor Development 593
Control 594
Socialization 597
Parenting in the Context of Sleep 600
Strengths and Limitation of the Evidence Base 604
Future Directions for Research 604
Implications for Policy and Practice 605
Conclusion 607
References 607
Parenting of Preschool and School-Aged Children 612
Introduction 612
Theoretical Background 612
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model of Child Development 612
Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory and the Importance of Self-Efficacy 613
Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development 614
Tasks and Challenges of Parenting and Child Development Across the Lifespan 615
The Transition to Formal Schooling 615
Australian Early Development Census (AEDC) 615
Physical Health and Well-Being 618
Social Development 618
Emotional Development 619
Language and Cognitive Development 620
Communication 620
Special Populations 621
Parenting Gifted and Talented Children 621
Parenting Children with Disabilities 621
The Relationship Between Home and School 622
What Does the Home–School Partnership Look Like? 622
Parent’s Role in the Home–School Partnership 623
Benefits of the Home–School Partnership 624
Implications for Policy and Practice 625
Implications and Considerations for Special Populations 626
Conclusions 628
References 628
Parenting of Adolescents and Emerging Adults 633
Introduction 633
The Role of Family Risk and Protective Factors in Preventing Adolescent Behavior Problems 635
Some Challenges in Promoting a Positive Developmental Trajectory 637
What Skills do Today’s Teenagers Need to Develop? 638
What Skills do Parents Need to Raise Healthy Well-Adjusted Teenagers Who Will Become Well-Functioning Adults? 639
Specific Tasks and Challenges Associated with Parenting Adolescents and Emerging Adults 639
Puberty 640
Cognitive Development 640
Peer Relationships 641
Autonomy 642
What Should Parents do to Promote the Health and Well-Being of Their Teenagers? 642
Building and Strengthening the Parent–Teenager Relationship 643
Encouraging Appropriate Behavior and Discouraging Inappropriate Behavior 644
Promoting Autonomy 646
Parenting Emerging Adults 648
Strengths and Limitations of the Existing Evidence Base 648
Future Directions for Research 649
Implications for Policy and Practice 650
Conclusions 650
References 650
Parenting of Adult Children: A Neglected Area of Parenting Studies 655
Introduction 655
Theoretical Background 655
Tasks and Challenges Associated with Being a Parent to Adult Children 657
Being a Parent to Early Emerged Young Adults 658
Impact on Young Adult’s Transition to Adulthood 660
Being a Parent to the Parent 660
Impacts on Family Well–Being 661
Being a Parent to Adults with Physical and Mental Health Difficulties 662
Impact on Parents 663
Cultural Differences in Parent–Adult Child Relationships 664
Strengths and Limitations of the Existing Evidence for Parent–Adult Children Relationships 665
Future Directions 668
Recommendation 1: Consider the Heterogeneity of the Population 668
Recommendation 2: Greater Focus on the Pattern of Parent–Adult Child Interactions 669
Recommendation 3: The Collection of Long-Term Data 669
Recommendation 4: Involve the Consumer in the Program Development Stage 670
Recommendation 5: The Inclusion of Compassion-Based Approaches in Parent–Adult Child Interventions 670
Implication for Policy and Practice 671
Conclusions 671
References 672
Parenting and Carer Responsibilities During the Later Years 678
Introduction 678
Dementia and Relationships 680
The Role of Caregiving 681
Changing Family Dynamics 685
Interventions to Support Caregivers 689
New York University Caregiver Intervention (NYUCI) 689
Resources for Enhancing Alzheimer’s Caregiver Health (REACH) 690
Seattle Protocols 690
Strengths and Limitations of the Literature 690
Future Directions for Research, Policy and Practice 691
Conclusions 693
References 694
Part V: Supporting Parenting 698
The Impact of Poverty and Discrimination on Family Interactions and Problem Development 699
Introduction 699
The Nature of Problem Behaviors 700
The Role of Family Interactions in the Development of Problem Behavior 700
Coercion and Its Impact 700
Positive Reinforcement 701
Monitoring and Limit Setting 701
The Impact of Poverty on Families 701
The Influence of Poverty on Family Interactions 702
The Influence of Poverty on Positive Support 702
The Influence of Poverty on Monitoring and Limit Setting 703
Poverty as a Moderator of the Effects of Parenting Interventions 703
The Impact of Discrimination on Families 704
The Impact of Discrimination on Well-Being 704
Reducing the Impact of Discrimination on Children and Adolescents 705
The Implications of This Analysis for All Families 705
Policies Relevant to Family Economic Security 706
The Recent Evolution of Public Policy 706
Policies Relevant to Discrimination 707
A Role for Family Interventionists 708
Conclusions 708
References 709
Role of Universal Parenting Programs in Prevention 713
Introduction 713
Theoretical Background 713
Public Health Approach to Parenting 714
Evidence for Parenting Interventions in Context 716
Evaluations of Parenting Programs Offered Universally on Child Mental Health 717
General Mental Health 717
Study Populations and Interventions 717
Summary of Results 725
Externalizing Behavior Problems 731
Study Populations and Interventions 731
Summary of Results 731
Internalizing Behavior Problems 733
Study Populations and Interventions 733
Summary of Results 734
Evaluations of Parenting Programs Offered Universally on Parental Mental Health 734
Study Populations and Interventions 734
Summary of Results 735
Strengths and Limitations of the Evidence Base 735
Future Directions for Research 737
Implications for Policy and Practice 737
Conclusions 739
References 739
Parenting and Family Intervention in Treatment 744
Introduction 744
Theoretical Background 745
Conduct Problems 745
Diagnostic Criteria, Epidemiology, and Developmental Pathways 745
Conceptualizing Conduct Problems: Focus on the Family 746
Family-Based Interventions for Conduct Problems 747
PMT for Children with CP 747
Family-Based Interventions for Adolescents with CP 750
Strengths and Limitations of the Evidence Base 751
Generalization and Social Validity 752
Comparison Studies 754
Mechanisms and Moderation 754
Implementation 756
Economic Analyses 757
Future Directions for Research 757
Future Directions for Policy and Practice 760
Select Evidence-Based Interventions 760
Family-Based Treatment is a Core Intervention Component 761
Family-Based Treatment as Prevention 761
Implementation in Real-World Settings 761
Conclusions 762
References 762
Part VI: Implications for Policy and Practice 773
Towards a Comprehensive, Evidence-Based System of Parenting Support over the Lifespan 774
Introduction 774
Evidence–Based Parenting Support 774
Why a System of Evidence-Based Parenting Support 775
Parenting and Child Outcomes 775
The Changing Context of Parenthood 776
The Impact of Childhood Adversity 778
Improving Social, Emotional, and Academic Outcomes through Parenting Programs 779
Making a Multilevel System of Parenting Support Work 780
Applying the Minimal Sufficiency Principle 780
Avoiding a “One Size Fits All” Approach 780
Using Knowledge about Parents’ Preferences as Consumers 781
Enhancing Parental Self–Regulation 782
Targeting Other Phases of the Life Cycle 783
Activating Community Change Processes 784
Essential Features of a Population Approach 785
Blending of Universal and Targeted Interventions 785
Flexible Delivery 785
Cultural Adaptations of Evidence-Based Programs 785
Use of Administrative Data 786
Challenges Ahead 786
Strengthening the Evidence 786
Ensuring Sufficient Population Reach 787
Monitoring and Enhancing Program Fidelity 787
Encouraging Father Participation 788
Conclusions 788
References 789
Economic Benefits of Sustained Investments in Parenting 796
Introduction 796
What is the Economic Way of Thinking? 796
What Do We Mean by Economic Evaluation? 798
What Do We Know about the Economics of Parenting Interventions for Improving Child Health? 800
Evaluations of Parenting Interventions Targeting Child Mental Health 805
General Mental Health 805
Externalizing Behavior Problems 806
Study Populations 806
Interventions and Comparators 806
Economic Evaluation Methods 807
Summary of Results 810
Internalizing Behavior Problems 811
Evaluations of Parenting Interventions Targeting Diverse Child Health Problems 811
Methodological Considerations 812
Implications for Policy and Practice 814
Conclusions 815
References 815
Future Directions for Research, Policy, and Practice 818
Introduction 818
Future Directions for Research 818
Expanding the Lifespan Perspective on Parenting and the Parent–Child Relationship 818
The Cultural Context of Parenting 819
The Role of Fathers 820
Parent and Child Self-Regulation 820
Mechanisms of Change in Parenting Interventions 821
The Impact of Positive Parenting on Children’s Biology 822
Future Directions for Policy and Practice 822
A Systems-Contextual Approach to Parenting Support 822
Towards Integration of Prevention and Treatment Programs 823
Adopting a Population Approach 823
A Consumer and End-User Driven Approach 823
Multidisciplinary Approaches to Support Parenting and Parent Training 824
Enhancing the Social Ecology of Parenting 825
Integration of Parenting Intervention within the Broader Field of Parent and Child Development Support 825
Conclusion 825
References 826
Index 829