Space Security and Legal Aspects of Active Debris Removal (eBook)

Contents 6
Chapter 1: Active Debris Removal: A Joint Task and Obligation to Cooperate for the Benefit of Mankind 8
1.1 Introduction 8
1.2 The Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities 9
1.3 An International Obligation to Cooperate for the Benefit of Mankind 12
1.4 The Implementation of a Specialized International Treaty 16
1.5 The Creation of a Dedicated International Organization 19
1.6 Conclusion 22
Chapter 2: Dispute Resolution in the Context of ADR: A Public International Law Perspective 23
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Current Mechanisms and Their Accessibility 25
2.2.1 Inter-States Litigation 25
2.2.2 The Position of Private Entities 28
2.2.3 Questions That Remain Open 32
2.3 The Way Forward 33
2.4 Conclusions 34
Chapter 3: Jurisdiction and Control Aspects of Space Debris Removal 36
3.1 Introduction 36
3.2 An Overview of Article VIII: The Fundamental “Jurisdiction and Control” Clause in International Space Law 38
3.3 Compelling Criteria for the Grant of “Jurisdiction and Control” Over Space Debris Under Article VIII 39
3.3.1 Condition 1: Is Space Debris Qualified as a “Space Object”? 39
3.3.2 Condition 2: The General Capability of Being Identified? 41
3.3.2.1 Distinction Between “Identifiable” and “Unidentifiable” Objects 41
3.3.2.2 The Identification Process and Registration of Space Objects 42
3.4 The Continuity of Jurisdiction: A Permanent “State Property” or An Abandoned Space Object? 43
3.4.1 The Traditional View: Absolute or Exclusive Nature of Jurisdiction 43
3.4.2 The Practical View: Termination of Jurisdictional Power Under Special Circumstances 46
3.4.2.1 Scenario 1: An “Expressed” or “Implied” Act of Abandonment 46
3.4.2.2 Scenario 2: A “State of Peril” Circumstance 47
3.4.2.3 Competing Interests of States: A System of Priorities in Space Law? 47
3.5 Conclusion 50
Chapter 4: Between Active Debris Removal and  Space-Based Weapons: A Comprehensive Legal Approach 53
4.1 Introduction 53
4.1.1 Dealing with Growing Space Debris, the Gentle Mitigation and the Hard Removal 54
4.1.2 The Corpus Juris Spatialis and Space Debris, an Unforeseen Challenge? 57
4.1.3 The Outer Space Treaty and Space Debris: A Protective Legal Cradle 58
4.1.4 Space Weaponization and Active Debris Removal: A Comprehensive Legal Perspective 63
4.1.5 Selective Cleaning Operations: A Possible Temporary Solution? 70
4.2 Final Conclusions 73
Chapter 5: The Right to (Anticipatory) Self-Defence in Outer Space to Reduce Space Debris 75
5.1 Legal Definition of Space Debris 77
5.1.1 Lack of Legal Clarity: Absence of Space Debris Definition 77
5.1.2 Initiatives to Define Space Debris 78
5.2 Removal of Space Debris: Right, Obligation or Voluntary Option? 79
5.2.1 Who May Remove Space Debris: Is There a Compulsory Link Between Space Debris and Ownership? 81
5.2.2 The International Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities (ICoC) 82
5.3 International Legal Norms to Ensure Peaceful Behaviour in Space 83
5.3.1 Relevant Specialized UN Space Treaties 83
5.3.1.1 Moving Weapons into Space (Art. VI, para. 1 OST) 84
5.3.1.2 Definition of Peaceful Use (Art. IV, Para 2 and Para. 4 OST) 85
5.3.2 The UN Charter and the Use of Force 86
5.3.2.1 Art. 2 (4) The UN Charter and the Prohibition on the Use of Force 86
5.3.2.2 Art. 51 UN Charter and the Concept of Anticipatory Self-Defence 87
Precluding the Wrongfulness of Removing Space Debris 88
The Concept of Anticipatory Self-Defence and Preventive Actions 89
5.4 Further Initiatives on the Use of Self-Defence to Mitigate Space Debris 90
5.4.1 Russian Approach for a Uniform Interpretation of the Right of Self-Defence in Outer Space in Conformity with the UN Charter 90
5.4.2 Proposals for Multilateral Non-legally Binding Instruments on Space Security by the EU 93
5.4.3 Further Initiatives to Strengthen Space Security by Taking into Account Space Debris and the Right of Self-Defence 93
5.5 Conclusion: Already Struggles by Concretising ‘Peaceful Use of Space’ for Discussion Fora 95
Chapter 6: The Degree of the Lack of Regulation of Space Debris Within the Current Space Law Regime and Suggestions for a Prospective Legal Framework and Technological Interventions 97
6.1 Introduction 98
6.2 A New Perspective on Space Law 99
6.3 Space Debris Regulation 100
6.3.1 The Five Space Treaties (Hard Law) 100
6.3.1.1 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies 100
6.3.1.2 Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space 102
6.3.1.3 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects 102
6.3.1.4 Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space 103
6.3.2 Related Treaties (Hard Law) 104
6.3.3 Customary International Law (Hard Law) 104
6.3.4 Soft Law 104
6.4 Shortcomings of the Current Space Debris Regulation Regime 105
6.4.1 Effectiveness of the Current Space Debris Regulation Regime 105
6.4.2 New Technology, Opportunities and Business Models 106
6.4.3 New Law and New Ideas? 109
6.5 Conclusion 109
Chapter 7: Proposal for an International Agreement on Active Debris Removal 111
7.1 Introduction 112
7.2 Overall Background for the Establishment of an International Agreement on ADR 115
7.2.1 Obstacles to the Conduct of ADR 115
7.2.1.1 Externalization of Costs and Benefits 116
7.2.1.2 Lack of Short-Term Cost-Effective Returns 117
7.2.2 Analysis from a Game Theory Perspective 118
7.2.3 Forum for Negotiation 118
7.3 Definition of Space Debris 120
7.3.1 Function-Based Approach and Control-Based Approach 120
7.3.2 Correlation Between Space Debris and Space Object 122
7.4 Jurisdiction and Control 124
7.5 Orbital Maintenance Fund 126
7.6 Liability Issues 129
7.7 Conclusion 131
Chapter 8: Active Debris Removal, International Environmental Law, and the Collective Management of Risk: Foundations of an International System for Space Traffic Management 134
8.1 Introduction 135
8.2 Three Layers of Legal Imagination 136
8.2.1 A Vivid Imagination 136
8.2.2 An Imagination at Odds with Reality 138
8.2.3 A Creative Imagination 143
8.2.3.1 Environmental Law: A Proper Frame of Reference 144
8.2.3.2 A Creative Imagination: Towards International Space Traffic Management? 144
8.3 Active Debris Removal, Space Activities and Prevention Obligations: de lege ferenda 147
8.3.1 General International Environmental Law 147
8.3.2 Prevention of Harm to the Space Environment Arising from Space Activities 150
8.3.3 Legal Foundations for a Common Construction to Manage Risks Attending Space Activities and to Remove Debris: ‘Respect for the Space Environment’ 153
8.4 Concluding Remarks 157
Chapter 9: United States Law and Policy on Space Debris 158
9.1 Introduction 158
9.2 Agency Responsible for the Regulation of Space Activities 159
9.3 U.S. Policy on Space Debris 160
9.4 U.S. Law on Space Debris 164
9.4.1 Debris Mitigation Under FCC 164
9.4.2 Debris Mitigation Under NOAA 165
9.4.3 Debris Mitigation Under DOT 166
9.4.4 Debris Mitigation Under NASA 167
9.5 U.S. Space Debris Mitigation Standard 168
9.6 Conclusion 168
Chapter 10: The Finnish Space Activities Act and Active Debris Removal 171
10.1 Introduction 171
10.2 Summary of the Provisions of the Act 172
10.3 Obligation to Avoid Space Debris and Environmental Harm 175
10.4 Active Space Debris Removal 176
10.5 Conclusion 178
Chapter 11: French Law Approach Around the Topic “Legal Implications/Aspects of Active Debris Removal (ADR”) 180
11.1 Active Debris Removal Is a Space Operation Under the Scope of FSOA 180
11.2 Determination of the ADR’s Space Operator Under FSOA 181
11.3 Liability Toward Third Parties Resulting from ADR’s Operations 184
11.4 Liability of Persons Taking Part in the ADR’ Space Operation or in the Production of a Space Object 186
11.5 Conclusion and Perspectives 187