American Battles and Campaigns (eBook)

Early 19th Century Wars, 1798–1848

The new nation of the United States of America soon became embroiled in conflicts with its former imperial masters, fighting both the French (Franco-American War) and British (War of 1812). As American settlers moved westwards, the United States soon came into conflict with Mexico over disputed territories. Texans fought for their independence in the Texas Revolution, while a decisive victory in the American-Mexican War (1846–48) gained the United States vast new territories stretching from the Mississippi delta to the Pacific Ocean.

Franco-American War (The Quasi-War) 1798–1800

US presidents George Washington and John Adams considered the alliance with France terminated on Louis XVI’s execution. The Directory authorized privateers to seize US ships and the US Navy engaged French warships.

■ LA CROYABLE, 7 JULY 1798

USS Delaware under the command of Stephen Decatur captured this French privateer schooner of 12 guns operating off New Jersey. She became USS Retaliation, later recaptured, then taken for good by the US.

■ CONSTELLATION VS. VENGEANCE, 1 FEB 1800

Secretary of War Henry Knox had urged the construction of frigates capable of outrunning what they could not outfight. One of these, Constellation, under Capt Thomas Truxtun, found French frigate Vengeance about to return to France off Guadalupe. Vengeance surrendered after a fierce 12-hour battle. The escaped French ship became an American prize, but when Constellation’s mainmast collapsed, Vengeance absconded under cover of darkness and limped back to France.

■ SANTO DOMINGO RAID, MAY 1800

Toussaint L’Ouverture became LGov of French Saint-Domingue as invading British and Spanish freed and armed French slaves, after which the French abolished slavery. Using fellow freed slaves, he conquered Spanish Santo Domingo without French authorization.

■ USS BOSTON VS. LE BERCEAU, 12 OCTOBER 1800

USS Boston, under Capt George Little, overhauled French ship Le Berceau, under Cdr Louis André Senes. The battle lasted until sunset, both ships damaged and losing manoeuvrability. Boston captured Le Berceau upon making repairs.

First Barbary War 1801–05

■ TRIPOLI HARBOUR, 1804

Cdre Edward Preble assumed command of the US Mediterranean Squadron in 1803 and blockaded Tripoli harbour to prevent raids by the Barbary pirates. The first significant action of the blockade came on 31 October, when the 36-gun frigate USS Philadelphia ran aground on an uncharted reef and was captured by Tripolitan gunboats together with its crew and Capt William Bainbridge. Although the frigate was unfit for sea, it was anchored in the harbour as a floating battery.

If the Philadelphia could be repaired, it would become the Barbary pirates’ most powerful naval unit and its destruction was Preble’s top priority. The defences of Tripoli harbour ruled out a conventional naval attack and it was decided that a night raid offered the best chance of success. On the night of 16 February 1804, a captured Tripolitan ketch renamed USS Intrepid disguised as a local merchant vessel sailed into the harbour under the command of Lt Stephen Decatur, Jr. He bluffed his way alongside the Philadelphia, allowing his detachment of marines hidden below decks to board the frigate and set her on fire. Despite heavy fire from the shore batteries, Decatur and his men successfully escaped in Intrepid.

In August 1804, Intrepid was converted into a ‘floating volcano’ to be sent into the harbour and blown up in the midst of the corsair fleet. The vessel was loaded with 100 barrels of powder and 150 shells, with their fuses set to burn for 15 minutes. On the evening of 4 September, Intrepid sailed into the harbour commanded by Master Commandant Richard Somers, but was hit by fire from shore batteries and blew up with the loss of all hands before reaching the enemy fleet.

■ DERNA, 27 APRIL–13 MAY 1805

Six months after failing to destroy the pirate fleet at Tripoli, American forces turned against Derna, which was attacked by a force from Alexandria, comprising a small detachment of US Marines and 500 Arab and Greek mercenaries under Capt William Eaton, Marine Lt Preston O’Bannon and the deposed Tripolitan ruler Hamet Karamanli. The USS Nautilus, the USS Hornet and the USS Argus were detailed to supply the force and provide naval gunfire support. On 27 April, the three vessels bombarded the defences of Derna, and Eaton’s force successfully stormed the city, whose garrison fled after a short fight. The Pasha of Tripolitania, Yusuf Karamanli, had sent reinforcements to Derna, which arrived too late to prevent its capture. They made several attempts to retake the city, all of which were beaten off with the loss of 2000 men.

German Coast Uprising, 1811

■ GERMAN COAST UPRISING, 8–10 JAN 1811

The German Coast region near New Orleans had a complex political situation, with French and Spanish influences and a large free black population in addition to a high proportion of slaves working the sugar plantations. Discontent among the latter resulted in a revolt that began in January 1811 after a period of plotting among the slave populations. Although the rising was violent, with considerable destruction of property, only two white people were killed. The rebels armed themselves as best they could, but had few firearms and were joined by only a small proportion of the slave population on the plantations they passed. They were met by militia and federal troops, and a short and one-sided battle ensued. The rebels, whose numbers have been postulated at anywhere between 200 and 500, suffered heavy casualties and scattered. The survivors were hunted down and recaptured.

Pre-war of 1812

■ CHESAPEAKE-LEOPARD AFFAIR, 22 JUNE 1807

As US frigate Chesapeake (36 guns), under Cdre James Barron, left Virginia, British frigate Leopard (50), under Capt Salusbury Humphreys, ordered her to allow the British to search for deserters. Upon Barron’s refusal, Leopard fired for 10 minutes at the completely unprepared Americans, Chesapeake surrendering. The British boarded and took four accused deserters, having killed three Americans and wounded 18.

War of 1812 (1812–15)

■ MACKINAC ISLAND I, 17 JULY 1812

British Capt Charles Roberts caught Lt Porter Hanks unaware that war had broken out with British artillery in position and his fort surrounded. Fearing that the British-allied Indians might massacre his command, Roberts surrendered.

■ BROWNSTOWN, 5 AUGUST 1812

US Maj Thomas van Horne set out to escort a supply column to Hull in Detroit. Tecumseh had rallied the local Indians to support the British and ambushed van Horne here, capturing dispatches, frightening Hull.

■ MAGUAGA, 9 AUGUST 1812

US Gen William Hull sent 600 men under LCol James Miller to bring supplies to Detroit. Tecumseh and 400 British and Indians attacked Miller and each other in confusion, Miller retreated to Detroit.

■ FORT DEARBORN, 15 AUGUST 1812

Gen William Hull ordered this post, essentially a trading station, evacuated soon after the outbreak of hostilities with Britain and the fall of neighbouring Fort Mackinac. Capt Nathan Heald led out 67 garrison with 27 women and children after destroying Dearborn’s stores. Four hundred Potawatomi and Winnebago Indians attacked the column of evacuees, killing 38 garrison, two women and 12 children, selling the survivors to the British for ransom.

■ DETROIT, 15–16 AUGUST 1812

Gen William Hull received a commuted death sentence for cowardice after surrendering this bastion to British Gen Isaac Brock, after Brock warned that his Indians might massacre the garrison. Hull forbade his artillery to fire.

■ CONSTITUTION VS. GUERRIERE, 19 AUG 1812

This frigate duel between Constitution (44 guns), under Capt William Hull, and Guerriere (38), under Capt Richard Dacres, featured British shot bouncing off ‘Old Ironsides’s’ hull and the Guerriere’s dismasting, surrender and sinking in a stinging British defeat.

■ CONSTITUTION VS. JAVA, 19 AUGUST 1812

‘Old Ironsides’ scored again when Constitution (44 guns), under Cdre William Bainbridge, engaged and took HMS Java (38), under Capt Henry Lambert. Java’s greater speed allowed her to pummel Constitution severely before Constitution’s strength and battery prevailed.

■ FORT WAYNE, 5–12 SEPTEMBER 1812

As hostilities erupted, Potawatomi and Miami Indians attacked this post in...