An Introduction to Social Psychology

MILES HEWSTONE is Emeritus Professor, University of Oxford. He has (co)authored 3 books, edited 25 books, and has published over 250 articles relating to the study of social psychology. He has been awarded the Presidents' Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychological Knowledge (2001) and the Kurt Lewin Medal for Distinguished Research Achievement (2005). He is a Fellow of the British Academy. WOLFGANG STROEBE has taught social psychology in the United States, Great Britain, Germany, and the Netherlands. He is currently Emeritus Professor, Utrecht University and visiting professor at the University of Groningen. He has authored and co-authored multiple books and numerous scientific articles on social and health psychology. He has received several awards, including an honorary doctorate from the University of Louvain (Belgium), the Tajfel Award for lifelong contributions to European Social Science, and the lifetime achievement award of the German Psychological Association.

Notes on Contributors xvii

Preface to Seventh Edition xx

Guided Tour xxiii

Accompanying Online Resources for Instructors and Students xxix

Chapter 1 Introducing Social Psychology 1
Wolfgang Stroebe and Miles Hewstone

Introduction 2

Some classic studies 2

A Definition of Social Psychology 5

The core characteristics of social psychology 5

The Unique Perspective of Social Psychology 7

The study of the individual and the social 7

A Brief History of Social Psychology 11

The beginning 11

The early years 15

The years of expansion 17

Social Psychology In Europe 20

The Two Crises of Social Psychology 22

The first crisis of social psychology 22

The second crisis of social psychology 25

Why crises can be good for a field 28

Recent Developments In Social Psychology 29

Chapter Summary 32

Key Terms 33

Note 33

Suggestions For Further Reading 33

Chapter 2 Research Methods in Social Psychology 35
Andrew G. Livingstone and Antony S. R. Manstead

Introduction 36

Summary 38

Research Strategies 38

Experiments and quasi‐experiments 40

Survey research 42

Qualitative approaches 44

Summary 47

A Closer Look At Experimentation In Social

Psychology 48

Features of the social psychological experiment 48

Experimental designs 51

Threats to validity in experimental research 56

Problems with experimentation 62

Summary 64

Data Collection Methods 64

Observational methods 65

Self‐report methods 67

Implicit and physiological methods 68

‘Big data’: Social media and online behaviour as a source of data 70

Choosing a method 70

Social neuroscience 71

Summary 71

Chapter Summary 72

Key Terms 73

Suggestions For Further Reading 74

Chapter 3 Social Perception and Attribution 75
Brian Parkinson

Introduction 76

Social Perception 77

Summary 81

Attribution Theory 81

Correspondent inference theory 82

Covariation theory 85

Access To Covariation Information 87

Knowledge, expectation and covariation 89

Learning about causation using covariation and causal power 90

Attributions and achievement 91

Attribution and depression 92

Misattribution of arousal 95

Attributional biases 99

Explaining intentional behaviour 111

The naive scientist metaphor 112

Attributions as discourse 114

Summary 114

Social Perception and Social Reality 115

Automatic and Controlled Social Perception 116

Chapter Summary 117

Key Terms 118

Suggestions For Further Reading 119

Chapter 4 Social Cognition 120
Roland Deutsch and Jenny Roth

Introduction 121

Five Principles of Social Cognition 121

First principle: social phenomena can be explained by general cognitive processes 121

Second principle: social cognition is situated 132

Third principle: motivation shapes social cognition 140

Fourth principle: social cognition can be a special adaptation 145

Fifth principle: social phenomena are often caused by a mixture of general and more specifically social processes 155

Chapter Summary 158

Key Terms 160

Suggestions For Further Reading 160

Chapter 5 The Self 161
Carolyn C. Morf

Introduction 162

Where Self‐Knowledge Comes From 163

Through our own observation: personal sources 164

Through the help of others: social sources 166

Experiencing a coherent self: autobiographical memories and the self as narrative 170

Summary 171

The Organizational Function of The Self: The Self As Mental Representation 172

The nature of the self‐concept 172

Actual, ideal and possible selves 175

Implicit and explicit self‐knowledge 176

The nature of self‐esteem 176

The neural underpinnings of self‐knowledge 185

Summary 186

The Motivational Functions of The Self 186

Know thyself: the self‐assessment motive 187

Bigger, better, faster, stronger: the self‐enhancement motive 187

The puzzle of low self‐regard: self‐verification 193

Why do we self‐enhance? 197

The pros and cons of pursuing self‐esteem 198

Summary 201

The Regulatory Functions of The Self: The Self In Control 201

Self‐awareness theory 202

Self‐regulation theory 202

The consequences of self-regulation 205

Autonomous self‐regulation as a resource 206

Summary 207

Self Stability and Change 208

Chapter Summary 210

Key Terms 211

Suggestions For Further Reading 212

Chapter 6 Attitudes 213
Geoffrey Haddock and Gregory R. Maio

Introduction 214

What is An Attitude? 214

Summary 215

The Content of Attitudes 215

The cognitive component of attitudes 216

The affective component of attitudes 217

The behavioural component of attitudes 218

How related are the components of attitudes? 220

Summary 222

The Structure of Attitudes 222

Summary 224

Why Do We Hold Attitudes? 224

Object appraisal 226

Utilitarian versus value‐expressive attitudes 227

Summary 229

Linking Attitude Content, Structure and Function 230

Content, structure, function and attitude strength 230

Summary 231

The Measurement of Attitudes 231

Explicit measures of attitudes 232

Issues relevant to the explicit measurement of attitudes 233

Implicit measures of attitudes 234

Are attitude measures reliable and valid? 238

Summary 238

Do Attitudes Predict Behaviour? 239

When do attitudes predict behaviour? 241

Do explicit and implicit measures of attitude predict different types of behaviour? 244

Models of attitude–behaviour relations 246

Summary 251

Chapter Summary 251

Key Terms 252

Suggestions For Further Reading 253

Chapter 7 Strategies of Attitude and Behaviour Change 254
Wolfgang Stroebe

Introduction 255

Persuasion 255

Theories of systematic processing 256

A dual‐process theory of persuasion 260

The impact of persuasion on implicit measures of attitude 270

Incentive‐Induced Attitude Change 272

Counter‐attitudinal behaviour and attitude change 273

Some paradoxical effects of incentives and sanctions 277

Further limitations of the effectiveness of incentive‐induced change 278

Summary 279

Advertising As Applied Persuasion 279

Is subliminal advertising possible? 280

Summary 289

Chapter Summary 290

Key Terms 291

Suggestions For Further Reading 291

Chapter 8 Social Influence 293
Miles Hewstone and Robin Martin

Introduction 294

Classic Evidence of Social Influence and The Power of Social Norms 295

The impact of social norms 295

Summary 302

Why Does Social Influence Occur? 302

Social comparison 304

Summary 305

Types of Social Influence 306

Inducing compliance 306

The influence of numerical majorities and minorities 308

Group decision‐making 325

Obedience to authority 334

Summary 343

Chapter Summary 344

Key Terms 345

Suggestions For Further Reading 345

Chapter 9 Aggression 347
Barbara Krahé

Introduction 348

Definition and Measurement of Aggressive Behaviour 349

Observation of aggressive behaviour 351

Obtaining reports of aggressive behaviour 351

Summary 354

Theories of Aggression 354

Biological approaches 354

Psychological approaches 357

Summary 364

Personal and Situational Variables Affecting

Aggressive Behaviour 365

Individual differences in aggressive behaviour 365

Situational influences on aggressive behaviour 367

Summary 376

Aggression As A Social Problem 376

Intimate partner violence 377

Sexual aggression 380

Bullying in school and the workplace 381

Intergroup violence 384

Summary 388

Psychological Prevention and Intervention 388

Catharsis 389

Punishment 390

De‐escalation through eliciting incompatible responses 390

Summary 392

Chapter Summary 392

Key Terms 393

Suggestions For Further Reading 394

Chapter 10 Prosocial Behaviour 395
Mark Levine, Rachel Manning, and Richard Philpot

Introduction 396

Prosocial Behaviour, Helping and Altruism 398

Definitions 398

The altruism–egoism debate 399

Prosocial behaviours 403

Summary 404

Why People Don’t Help 404

A decision‐making model of bystander behaviour 406

Summary 412

Why People Do Help 412

The costs and rewards of helping 412

Groups, identity and prosocial behaviour 415

Helping outgroups 418

Social identity and the bystander effect 419

Social identity, emotion and bystander intervention 420

Summary 421

Issues In Researching Prosocial Behaviour 421

Violence and helping 422

Gender and helping 425

Long‐term, sustained helping behaviours 426

Summary 430

Evolution, Genes and Helping 431

When helping is not self‐interested 433

Summary 435

The Social Neuroscience of Helping 435

Summary 437

Helping In The Real World 437

Selfish vs. altruistic behaviour in life‐threatening emergencies 438

Summary 442

Chapter Summary 442

Key Terms 443

Suggestions For Further Reading 444

Chapter 11 Attraction and Close Relationships 445
Johan C. Karremans and Catrin Finkenauer

Introduction 446

The Importance of Relationships 446

Relationships and psychological well‐being 446

Relationships and physical well‐being 447

The role of social support 448

The immediate effects of social exclusion 448

The need to belong 451

Attachment 451

Summary 456

Interpersonal Attraction 456

The benefits of physical attractiveness 456

What is beautiful is good 456

The features that determine physical attractiveness 457

Contextual influences on physical attractiveness 460

Psychological attraction 461

Proximity 462

Familiarity 463

Similarity 463

Underestimating the power of the situation 465

Summary 465

Romantic Relationships 465

Love 466

Relationship satisfaction and stability 466

Thoughts and behaviours that enhance relationship functioning 469

Summary 473

General Relationship Processes 474

Types of relationships 474

Disclosure 476

Perceived partner responsiveness 479

Relationship ending 481

Summary 482

Chapter Summary 482

Key Terms 484

Suggestions For Further Reading 484

Chapter 12 Group Dynamics 485
Bernard A. Nijstad

Introduction 486

The Phenomenology of Groups 486

Defining groups 486

Why groups? 487

Types of groups, entitativity and group functions 488

Consequences of entitativity 490

Summary 491

Individuals In Groups: Social Facilitation 493

Zajonc’s drive theory 493

The role of evaluation 494

Distraction‐conflict theory 495

Individuals In Groups: Group Socialization 497

Joining a group and group socialization: becoming a full member 498

Being in a group: maintenance and role negotiation 501

Leaving a group: divergence and exit 502

Summary 506

Group Development and Structure: The Group Level of Analysis 506

Group development 506

On being similar: norms, shared cognition and cohesion 509

On being different: status and roles 515

Summary 519

Groups In Their Environment: The Intergroup Level of Analysis 520

The intergroup context and the salience of group membership 520

The intergroup context, group perceptions and social influence 523

Summary 524

Chapter Summary 524

Key Terms 525

Suggestions For Further Reading 525

Chapter 13 Group Performance and Leadership 526
Stefan Schulz‐Hardt and Felix C. Brodbeck

Introduction 527

Some Core Concepts: Actual Group Performance, Group Potential and Task Type 528

Actual and potential group performance 528

Basic types of group tasks and their implications for group potential 529

Summary 530

Process Losses Versus Process Gains In Group Performance 531

Types of process losses and process gains 531

Summary 540

Group Performance Management 540

Three basic principles of group performance management 540

Summary 549

Leadership 550

Approaches to the study of leadership 551

Leadership in groups: How can leadership help to improve group performance? 559

Summary 561

Chapter Summary 561

Key Terms 562

Notes 563

Suggestions For Further Reading 563

Chapter 14 Prejudice and Intergroup Relations 565
Russell Spears and Nicole Tausch

Introduction 566

Personality Approaches To Prejudice 569

The authoritarian personality 570

Prejudice and a desire for social dominance 571

Authoritarianism and social dominance orientation as ideologies 572

Summary 577

The Cognitive Approach To Prejudice 577

Outgroup homogeneity, stereotyping and prejudice 578

Developments and integration 579

Summary 581

Group Approaches To Prejudice 581

Intragroup processes, ingroup bias and prejudice 581

Intergroup explanations of prejudice and discrimination 582

The social identity explanation of ingroup bias 585

More extreme threats to the group 590

Integrative intergroup theories 592

Can emotions help to explain the variety and intensity of prejudice? 595

Summary 599

Psychological Interventions To Reduce Prejudice and Improve Intergroup Relations 600

The ‘contact hypothesis’ 600

Varying levels of categorization 606

Other prejudice‐reduction techniques 610

The wider implications of prejudice reduction 613

Summary 615

Chapter Summary 616

Key Terms 617

Note 617

Suggestions For Further Reading 618

Chapter 15 Cultural Social Psychology 619
Peter B. Smith

Introduction 620

Culture and Cultural Differences 621

Defining culture 622

Nations as cultures 623

Measuring culture 623

Overcoming methodological challenges 627

Summary 630

Culture and Cognition 630

Summary 636

Culture and Self-Construal 636

Cross‐cultural variation in self‐enhancement 637

Self‐construal as an explanation of cultural differences 640

Self‐construal over time 640

Summary 642

Interpersonal Relations 643

Prosocial behaviour with strangers 643

Intimate relationships 644

Summary 645

Group Processes 646

Summary 649

Intergroup Relations and Prejudice 651

Contact and prejudice 654

Summary 655

Intercultural Relations 655

Migration and acculturation 657

Summary 663

Chapter Summary 663

Key Terms 664

Suggestions For Further Reading 664

Glossary 666

References 685

Name Index 792

Index 823