English for Writing Research Papers (eBook)

Adrian Wallwork is the author of more than 30 ELT and EAP textbooks. He has trained several thousand PhD students and academics from 35 countries to write research papers, prepare presentations, and communicate with editors, referees and fellow researchers.

Preface 6
Who is this book for? 6
How is this book organized? How should I read it? 6
How are the chapters organized? 7
I am a trainer in EAP and EFL. Should I read this book? 7
I edit research papers. Can this book help me? 7
Are the extracts in this book taken from real papers? 8
How do I know if the examples given are good or bad examples? 8
Useful phrases 8
Differences from the first edition 8
The author 8
Other books in this series 9
Contents 10
Part I: Writing Skills 22
Chapter 1: Planning and Preparation 23
1.1 What's the buzz? 24
1.2 Why should I publish? How do I know whether my research is worth publishing? 25
1.3 Which journal should I choose? 26
1.4 How can I know exactly what the editor is looking for? 27
1.5 What preparation do I need to do? 27
1.6 How can I create a template? 29
1.7 In what order should I write the various sections? 29
1.8 Should I write the initial draft in my own language before writing it in English? 30
1.9 How do I know what style and structure to use? 31
1.10 How can I highlight my key findings? 32
1.11 Whose responsibility is it to ensure my paper is understood? Mine or my readers? 33
1.12 How do I keep the referees happy? 33
1.13 What role do search engines play in making a paper accessible to others? 35
1.14 Summary 36
Chapter 2: Structuring a Sentence: Word Order 37
2.1 What's the buzz? 38
2.2 Basic word order in English: subject + verb + object + indirect object 39
2.3 Place the various elements in your sentence in the most logical order possible: don’t force the reader to have to change their perspective 40
2.4 Place the subject before the verb 41
2.5 Don’t delay the subject 42
2.6 Keep the subject and verb close to each other 43
2.7 Avoid inserting parenthetical information between the subject and the verb 44
2.8 Don’t separate the verb from its direct object 45
2.9 Put the direct object before the indirect object 46
2.10 Don’t use a pronoun (it, they) before you introduce the noun that the pronoun refers to 46
2.11 Locate negations near the beginning of the sentence 47
2.12 Locate negations before the main verb, but after auxiliary and modal verbs 48
2.13 State your aim before giving the reasons for it 48
2.14 Deciding where to locate an adverb 49
2.15 Put adjectives before the noun they describe, or use a relative clause 49
2.16 Do not put an adjective before the wrong noun or between two nouns 50
2.17 Avoid creating strings of nouns that describe other nouns 50
2.18 Summary 51
Chapter 3: Structuring Paragraphs 52
3.1 What's the buzz? 53
3.2 First paragraph of a new section – begin with a mini summary plus an indication of the structure 54
3.3 First paragraph of a new section – go directly to the point 55
3.4 Choose the most relevant subject to put it at the beginning of a sentence that opens a new paragraph 56
3.5 Deciding where to put new and old information within a sentence 57
3.6 Deciding where to put new and old information within a paragraph 59
3.7 Use ‘generic + specific’ constructions with caution 61
3.8 Try to be as concrete as possible as soon as possible 62
3.9 Link each sentence by moving from general concepts to increasingly more specific concepts 63
3.10 Don't force readers to hold a lot of preliminary information in their head before giving them the main information 64
3.11 Present and explain ideas in the same (logical) sequence 65
3.12 Use a consistent numbering system to list phases, states, parts etc. 66
3.13 Break up long paragraphs 67
3.14 Look for the markers that indicate where you could begin a new sentence or new paragraph 69
3.15 Begin a new paragraph when you begin to talk about your study and your key findings 70
3.16 Concluding a paragraph: avoid redundancy 70
3.17 How to structure a paragraph: an example 71
3.18 Summary 74
Chapter 4: Breaking Up Long Sentences 75
4.1 What's the buzz? 76
4.2 Analyse why and how long sentences are created 78
4.3 Using short sentences will help your co-authors if they need to modify your text 79
4.4 Using short sentence often entails repeating the key word, thus improving clarity 79
4.5 Only use a series of short sentences to attract the reader's attention 80
4.6 Combine two short sentences into one longer sentence if this will avoid redundancy 80
4.7 When expressing your aims, consider dividing up a long sentence into shorter parts 81
4.8 If possible replace and and as well as with a period (.) 82
4.9 Be careful how you use link words 84
4.10 Avoid which and relative clauses when these create long sentences 87
4.11 Avoid the – ing form to link phrases together 89
4.12 Limit the number of commas in the same sentence 90
4.13 Consider not using semicolons 92
4.14 Only use semicolons in lists 93
4.15 Restrict use of parentheses to giving examples 94
4.16 Final guidelines 95
4.17 Summary 96
Chapter 5: Being Concise and Removing Redundancy 97
5.1 What's the buzz 98
5.2 Write less and you will make fewer mistakes in English, and your key points will be clearer 99
5.3 Cut individual redundant words 100
5.4 Consider cutting abstract words 101
5.5 Avoid generic + specific constructions 101
5.6 When drawing the reader's attention to something use the least number of words possible 102
5.7 Reduce the number of link words 102
5.8 When connecting sentences, use the shortest form possible 104
5.9 Choose the shortest expressions 104
5.10 Cut redundant adjectives 105
5.11 Cut pointless introductory phrases 105
5.12 Replace impersonal expressions beginning it is … 106
5.13 Prefer verbs to nouns 107
5.14 Use one verb (e.g. analyze) instead of a verb+noun (e.g. make an analysis) 107
5.15 Reduce your authorial voice 109
5.16 Be concise when referring to figures and tables 109
5.17 Use the infinitive when expressing an aim 110
5.18 Remove unnecessary commonly-known or obvious information 110
5.19 Be concise even if you are writing for an online journal 111
5.20 Consider reducing the length of your paper 111
5.21 Summary 112
Chapter 6: Avoiding Ambiguity, Repetition, and Vague Language 113
6.1 What’s the buzz? 114
6.2 Place words in an unambiguous order 115
6.3 Beware of pronouns: possibly the greatest source of ambiguity 116
6.4 Avoid replacing key words with synonyms and clarify ambiguity introduced by generic words 118
6.5 Restrict the use of synonyms to non-key words 120
6.6 Don’t use technical / sector vocabulary that your readers may not be familiar with 122
6.7 Be as precise as possible 122
6.8 Choose the least generic word 124
6.9 Use punctuation to show how words and concepts are related to each other 125
6.10 Defining vs non-defining clauses: that vs which / who 126
6.11 Clarifying which noun you are referring to: which, that and who 128
6.12 -ing form vs that 128
6.13 - ing form vs. subject + verb 129
6.14 Avoiding ambiguity with the – ing form: use by and thus 130
6.15 Uncountable nouns 132
6.16 Definite and indefinite articles 133
6.17 Referring backwards: the dangers of the former, the latter 134
6.18 Referring backwards and forwards: the dangers of above, below, previously, earlier, later 136
6.19 Use of respectively to disambiguate 136
6.20 Distinguishing between both … and, and either … or 137
6.21 Talking about similarities: as, like, unlike 138
6.22 Differentiating between from and by 138
6.23 Be careful with Latin words 139
6.24 False friends 140
6.25 Be careful of typos 140
6.26 Summary 141
Chapter 7: Clarifying Who Did What 143
7.1 What's the buzz? 144
7.2 Check your journal’s style – first person or passive 145
7.3 How to form the passive and when to use it 145
7.4 Use the active form when the passive might be ambiguous 146
7.5 Consider starting a new paragraph to distinguish between your work and the literature 147
7.6 Ensure you use the right tenses to differentiate your work from others, particularly when your journal prohibits the use of we 148
7.7 For journals that allow personal forms, use we to distinguish yourself from other authors 151
7.8 When we is acceptable, even when you are not distinguishing yourself from other authors 151
7.9 Make good use of references 152
7.10 Ensure that readers understand what you mean when you write the authors 154
7.11 What to do if your paper is subject to a 'blind' review 154
7.12 Summary 155
Chapter 8: Highlighting Your Findings 156
8.1 What's the buzz? 157
8.2 Show your paper to a non-expert and get him / her to underline your key findings 157
8.3 Avoid long blocks of text to ensure that referees (and readers) can find and understand the importance of your contribution 158
8.4 Construct your sentences to help the reader’s eye automatically fall on the key information 160
8.5 Consider using bullets and headings 161
8.6 In review papers and book chapters, use lots of headings 162
8.7 Use tables and figures to attract attention 162
8.8 When you have something really important to say, make your sentences shorter than normal 163
8.9 Present your key findings in a very short sentence and list the implications 164
8.10 Remove redundancy 165
8.11 Think about the types of words that attract attention 165
8.12 Signal to the reader that you are about to say something important by using more dynamic language 166
8.13 When discussing key findings avoid flat phrases 166
8.14 Consider avoiding the use of phrases containing note and noting 168
8.15 Be explicit about your findings, so that even a non-­expert can understand them 168
8.16 Convince readers to believe your interpretation of your data 170
8.17 Beware of overstating your project’s achievements and significance 171
8.18 Summary 172
Chapter 9: Discussing Your Limitations 173
9.1 What's the buzz? 174
9.2 Recognize the importance of 'bad data' 175
9.3 There will always be uncertainty in your results, don't try to hide it 176
9.4 Be constructive in how you present your limitations 176
9.5 Clarify exactly what your limitations are 177
9.6 Avoid losing credibility 178
9.7 Anticipate alternative interpretations of your data 179
9.8 Refer to other authors who experienced similar problems 180
9.9 Tell the reader that with the current state-of-the-art this problem is not solvable 181
9.10 Explain why you did not study certain data 182
9.11 Tell the reader from what standpoint you wish them to view your data 182
9.12 Don't end your paper by talking about your limitations 183
9.13 Summary 184
Chapter 10: Hedging and Criticising 185
10.1 What's the buzz? 186
10.2 Why and when to hedge 187
10.3 Highlighting and hedging 189
10.4 Toning down verbs 190
10.5 Toning down adjectives and adverbs 191
10.6 Inserting adverbs to tone down strong claims 192
10.7 Toning down the level of probability 193
10.8 Saving your own face: revealing and obscuring your identity as the author in humanist subjects 194
10.9 Saving other authors' faces: put their research in a positive light 195
10.10 Saving other author’s faces: say their findings are open to another interpretation 196
10.11 Don’t overhedge 197
10.12 Hedging: An extended example from a Discussion section 197
10.13 Summary 200
Chapter 11: Plagiarism and Paraphrasing 201
11.1 What's the buzz? 202
11.2 Plagiarism is not difficult to spot 203
11.3 You can copy generic phrases 204
11.4 How to quote directly from other papers 205
11.5 How to quote from another paper by paraphrasing 206
11.6 Examples of how and how not to paraphrase 208
11.7 Paraphrasing the work of a third author 209
11.8 Paraphrasing: a simple example 209
11.9 Paraphrasing: how it can help you write correct English 210
11.10 Plagiarism: A personal view 211
11.11 Summary 212
Part II: Sections of a Paper 213
Chapter 12: Titles 214
12.1 What's the buzz? 215
12.2 How can I generate a title? How long should it be? 216
12.3 Should I use prepositions in my title? 217
12.4 Are articles (a / an, the) necessary? 218
12.5 How do I know whether to use a or an? 219
12.6 Should I try to include some verbs? 220
12.7 Will adjectives such as innovative and novel attract attention? 221
12.8 Is it a good idea to make my title concise by having a string of nouns? 221
12.9 What other criteria should I use to decide whether to include certain words or not? 223
12.10 How should I punctuate my title? What words should I capitalize? 224
12.11 How can I make my title shorter? 225
12.12 How can I make my title sound more dynamic? 226
12.13 Can I use my title to make a claim? 227
12.14 Are questions in titles a good way to attract attention? 227
12.15 When is a two-part title a good idea? 228
12.16 How should I write a title for a conference? 228
12.17 What is a running title? 229
12.18 Is using an automatic spell check enough? 230
12.19 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my title? 231
Chapter 13: Abstracts 232
13.1 What's the buzz? 233
13.2 What is an abstract? 234
13.3 How important is the Abstract? 235
13.4 Where is the Abstract located? 236
13.5 What are ‘highlights’? 236
13.6 How should I select my key words? 237
13.7 Why should I download the instructions to the author? Isn't it enough to check how other authors for the same journal have structured their abstract? 238
13.8 What style should I use: personal or impersonal? 238
13.9 What tenses should I use? 240
13.10 What is a structured abstract? 241
13.11 I am not a medical researcher, can I still use a structured abstract? 243
13.12 What is an Extended Abstract? 243
13.13 What is a video abstract? How can I make one? 244
13.14 My aim is to have my paper published in Nature. Is a Nature abstract different from abstracts in other journals? 245
13.15 How should I begin my Abstract? 246
13.16 How much background information should I give? 248
13.17 Should I mention any limitations in my research? 249
13.18 How can I ensure that my Abstract has maximum impact? 249
13.19 Why and how should I be concise? 250
13.20 What should I not mention in my Abstract? 251
13.21 What kinds of words do referees not want to see in an Abstract? 252
13.22 What are some of the typical characteristics of poor abstracts? 252
13.23 Social and behavioral sciences. How should I structure my abstract? How much background information? 254
13.24 I am a historian. We don't necessarily get'results' or follow a specific methodology. What should I do? 255
13.25 I need to write a review. How should I structure my Abstract? 256
13.26 I am writing an abstract for a presentation at a conference. What do I need to be aware of? 257
13.27 How do I write an abstract for a work in progress that will be presented at a conference? 258
13.28 How do I write an abstract for an informal talk, workshop or seminar at an international conference? 260
13.29 How do journal editors and conference review committees assess the abstracts that they receive? 261
13.30 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Abstract? 262
Chapter 14: Introduction 263
14.1 What’s the buzz? 264
14.2 How should I structure the Introduction? Can I use subheadings? 265
14.3 How does an Introduction differ from an Abstract? 265
14.4 How long should the Introduction be? 267
14.5 How should I begin my Introduction? 268
14.6 My research area is not a ‘hard’ science. Are there any other ways of beginning an Introduction? 270
14.7 How should I structure the rest of the Introduction? 271
14.8 What tenses should I use? 273
14.9 How long should the paragraphs be? 274
14.10 What are typical pitfalls of an Introduction? 275
14.11 What typical phrases should I avoid in my Introduction? 276
14.12 How should I outline the structure of the rest of my paper? 276
14.13 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Introduction? 278
Chapter 15: Review of the Literature 279
15.1 What’s the buzz? 280
15.2 How should I structure my Review of the Literature? 281
15.3 Do I need to cover all the literature? And what about the literature that goes against my hypotheses? 282
15.4 How should I begin my literature review? How can I structure it to show the progress through the years? 282
15.5 What is the clearest way to refer to other authors? Should I focus on the authors or their ideas? 283
15.6 How can I talk about the limitations of previous work and the novelty of my work in a constructive and diplomatic way? 284
15.7 What tenses should I use? 285
15.8 How can I reduce the amount I write when reporting the literature? 288
15.9 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Literature Review? 289
Chapter 16: Methods 290
16.1 What’s the buzz? 291
16.2 How should I structure the Methods? 292
16.3 What style: should I use the active or passive? What tenses should I use? 293
16.4 How should I begin the Methods? 295
16.5 My methods use a standard procedure. Do I need to describe the methods in detail? 296
16.6 My methods in the paper I am writing now are (almost) identical to the methods I published in a previous paper. Can I repeat them word for word? 296
16.7 Should I describe everything in chronological order? 297
16.8 How many actions / steps can I refer to in a single sentence? 298
16.9 Can I use bullets? 299
16.10 How can I reduce the word count? 300
16.11 How can I avoid my Methods appearing like a series of lists? 300
16.12 How can I avoid ambiguity? 301
16.13 How should I designate my study parameters in a way that my readers do not have to constantly refer backwards? 302
16.14 What grammatical constructions can I use to justify my aims and choices? 302
16.15 What grammatical construction is used with allow, enable and permit? 303
16.16 How can I indicate the consequences of my choices and actions? 304
16.17 What other points should I include in the Methods? How should I end the Methods? 305
16.18 How can I assess the quality of my Methods section? 306
Chapter 17: Results 307
17.1 What’s the buzz? 308
17.2 How should I structure the Results? 309
17.3 How should I begin the Results? 310
17.4 What tenses should I use when reporting my Results? 310
17.5 What style should I use when reporting my Results? 311
17.6 Is it OK if I use a more personal style? 311
17.7 Should I report any negative results? 312
17.8 How can I show my readers the value of my data, rather than just telling them? 313
17.9 How should I comment on my tables and figures? 314
17.10 What more do I need to know about commenting on tables? 315
17.11 What about legends and captions? 316
17.12 My research was based on various surveys and interviews. How should I report quotations from the people we interviewed? 317
17.13 What else do I need to be careful about when reporting data? 318
17.14 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Results section? 319
Chapter 18: Discussion 320
18.1 What’s the buzz 321
18.2 Active or passive? What kind of writing style should I use? 323
18.3 How should I structure the Discussion? 324
18.4 What is a ‘Structured Discussion’? 325
18.5 How should I begin the Discussion? 326
18.6 Why and how should I compare my work with that of others? 327
18.7 How can I give my interpretation of my data while taking into account other possible interpretations that I do not agree with? 329
18.8 How can I bring a little excitement to my Discussion? 330
18.9 How can I use seems and appears to admit that I have not investigated all possible cases? 332
18.10 What about the literature that does not support my findings – should I mention it? 332
18.11 How can I show the pitfalls of other works in the literature? 333
18.12 Should I discuss the limitations of my research? 333
18.13 What typical problems do researchers in the humanities have when writing the Discussion? 334
18.14 How long should the Discussion be? 335
18.15 How can I be more concise? 335
18.16 How long should the paragraphs be? 336
18.17 How should I end the Discussion if I have a Conclusions section? 337
18.18 How should I end the Discussion if I do not have a Conclusions section? 338
18.19 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Discussion? 339
Chapter 19: Conclusions 341
19.1 What's the buzz? 342
19.2 Do I have to have a Conclusions section? 343
19.3 What tenses should I use? 344
19.4 How should I structure the Conclusions? 344
19.5 How can I differentiate my Conclusions from my Abstract? 346
19.6 How can I differentiate my Conclusions from my Introduction and from the last paragraph of my Discussion? 347
19.7 How can I increase the impact of the first sentence of my Conclusions? 348
19.8 I don’t have any clear Conclusions, what can I do? Should I mention my limitations? 350
19.9 How should I relate my limitations to possible future work? 351
19.10 How can I end my Conclusions? 354
19.11 How should I write the Acknowledgements? 356
19.12 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Conclusions? 357
Chapter 20: The Final Check 358
20.1 What’s the buzz? 359
20.2 Print out your paper. Don’t just correct it directly on your computer 361
20.3 Ensure your paper is as good as it could possibly be the first time you submit it 362
20.4 Cut, cut, cut and keep cutting 363
20.5 Check your paper for readability 363
20.6 Always have the referee in mind 365
20.7 Check for clarity in the logical order of your argumentation 365
20.8 Be careful with cut and pastes 365
20.9 Make sure everything is consistent 366
20.10 Check that your English is suitably formal 366
20.11 Don’t underestimate the importance of spelling mistakes 367
20.12 Write a good letter / email to accompany your manuscript 368
20.13 Dealing with rejections 369
20.14 Take the editor’s and reviewers’ comments seriously 369
20.15 A tip for using professional editing agencies 370
20.16 A final word from the author: Let’s put a bit of fun into scientific writing! 370
20.17 Summary of this chapter 372
20.18 Summary of the entire book: 10 key concepts 373
Acknowledgements 374
Sources of the Factoids and other info 375
Index 382