Hmong Refugees in the New World

Christopher Thao Vang is a professor of teacher education at California State University, Stanislaus in Turlock, California, USA. He lives in Fresno.

Table of Contents


Acknowledgments

Foreword by Gregory S. Goodman

Preface

Part I: History of the Hmong People

One. Brief History of the Hmong

Introduction 9; Hmong Origins 9; The Hmong and the Miao 12; The Hmong Prior to the Imperial Xia 13; The Hmong and ChiYou 14; The Hmong and the San Miao 15; The Hmong and Chinese Dynasties 16; Hmong Settlement in Indochina 27; The Hmong and French Colonial Policy 30; The Hmong and the Japanese War 36; The Hmong and the French War 36; The Hmong and the American Secret War 38; Summing Up

Two. The Hmong Refugees in Diaspora

Introduction 45; The Final Rescue 45; Staying Under the Communist Regime 47; Fleeing the Communist Regime 50; Crossing the Mekong River 52; Childhood Memories 54; Two Case Studies of Hmong Families 60; The Refugee Camps 64; Coming to the West 66; Second Migration in the West 70; Summing Up

Three. The Hmong Today

Introduction 75; Identifying Today’s Hmong 75; Impact of Wars on the Hmong 79; Hmong in Western Nations 80; Hmong in Eastern Countries 83; Hmong Adjustment to Resettlement 86; Hmong Today and Beyond 91; Summing Up

Part II: Hmong Culture and Traditions in the West

Four. Hmong Family Structure

Introduction 103; Family Composition 103; Hmong Marriage 105; Family Roles 107; Socioeconomic Status 109; Hmong Parents and Their Children 110; Motherhood, Fatherhood and Childhood 116; Hmong Social Norms 121; Family Religions 129; Summing Up

Five. Hmong Cultural Values and Customs

Introduction 132; Values, Norms, and Customs 132; The Patriarchal System 133; Family Ancestral Origins 135; Hmong Clans 138; Hmong Ecological System 140; Respecting Parents and Elders 140; Hmong Social Behaviors 141; Hmong Humility and Proper Manners 143; Hmong Kinship and Relatives 144; Hmong Social Greetings 146; Hmong Hospitality 147; Hmong Courtship and Dating in the U.S. 149; Roles of Daughters-in-Law 150; Roles of Sons-in-Law 151; Hmong Dining Etiquette 151; Hmong Social Drinking 153; Hmong Cultural Maintenance 155; Summing Up

Six. Hmong Traditions and Religious Practices

Introduction 157; Belief Systems 157; Traditional New Year’s Celebrations 160; New Year Kowtowing Tradition 163; Hmong New Year in the West 164; Traditional Religious Practices 165; Seldom-Used Rituals and Antiquated Practices 177; Old Rituals and Practices 177; New Crop Rituals 179; Name Changing Ritual 180; Household Spirits 183; Home Restriction Ritual 184; Maternity and Postpartum Practices 185; Superstitions and Taboos 186; Summing Up

Seven. Hmong Marriage and Wedding Practices

Introduction 190; Origins 190; Variations in Marital Practices 191; Marital Restrictions and Taboos 192; Honoring Traditions Honors Families 193; The Right Time for Marriage 194; Types of Marriages 195; Types of Weddings 198; Marital Notification 200; Bride Price and Dowry 201; Marital Kowtowing Customs 203; Marital Food Basket 205; Marital Umbrella 206; Wedding Songs 206; Marital Manners and Conduct 208; Common Marital Penalties 209; Marital Crews 209; Drinking Formalities 211; Wedding Progression 212; Polygamy Is Not a Hmong Tradition 219; Summing Up

Eight. Hmong Funeral Services and Practices

Introduction 221; Origins of Funeral Practices 221; Birth and Predestination 223; Concepts of Heaven and Hell 225; Hmong Response to Death 226; Funeral Service Expenses 227; Funeral Service Preparation 229; Sacrificial Animals 232; Death Chants and Songs 234; Funeral Instruments 235; The Days of the Funeral Service 237; Soul Release Ritual 248; Summing Up

Part III: Hmong Oral Traditions and Written Languages

Nine. Hmong Oral Traditions

Introduction 251; Hmong Languages in Colors 251; History of Hmong Oral Languages 252; Hmong Language Learning 253; Hmong Oral Tradition 254; Hidden Stories in Pa Ndau 268; History of Wars 271; Emphasis on Oral Language Skills 281; Oral Language Competency 282; Summing Up

Ten. Hmong Linguistics and Writing Systems

Introduction 286; Origin of Hmong Languages 286; Roots of Hmong Written Language 288; Hmong Written Languages Today 291; Changing Usage and Unified Language 294; Hmong Grammar and Subsystems 297; Summing Up

Part IV: Hmong Challenges, Opportunities and Successes

Eleven. Hmong in Public Education

Introduction 315; Hmong Perceptions of U.S. Education 316; U.S. Educators’ Perceptions of Hmong Students 317; Socioeconomic Disadvantage and Academic Performance 321; School Practices and Academic Performance 322; Hmong Parents and Children’s Academic Performance 324; Gender and Educational Opportunity 326; Parental Support and Academic Performance 327; Socioeconomic Status and Academic Performance 329; Place of Birth and Academic Performance 330; Hmong Primary Language Issues 332; Age and English Language Learning 334; Residency and Academic Achievement 335; Hmong Academic Progress in the U.S. 336; Hmong School Dropout 343; Future Trends 344; Suggestions for Future Studies on Hmong Students 346; Summing Up

Twelve. The State of the Hmong Community

Introduction 349; Hmong Community Structure Prior to Living in the West 349; Western Hmong Community Establishment 352; Hmong Community Social Structure 354; The U.S. Hmong Population 361; Hmong Citizenship and Naturalization 363; Ages of Hmong Americans 363; Hmong Refugees with Disabilities 366; Hmong Healthcare 369; Hmong Employment and Occupations 371; Hmong Family Income 374; Hmong Refugees Living in Poverty 375; Hmong Home Ownership 375; Hmong Household and Marital Status 377; Hmong Social Media 379; Summing Up

Part V: Hmong Leadership and the Journey Forward

Thirteen. Hmong Leaders and Leadership

Introduction 383; Hmong Leaders in China 383; Hmong Leaders in Laos 386; Lo Blia Yao 394; Touby Lyfong 396; General Vang Pao 397; Hmong Leaders in the West 402; Why No Successor Named 407; Hmong Need New Leaders 408; Educated and Elected Hmong Individuals 415; The Next Hmong Leaders 416; Summing Up

Fourteen. The Hmong Journey Forward

Introduction 419; Hmong and Their Community 420; Hmong and Their Cultural Heritage 435; Hmong and Their Children’s Education 444; Hmong and Their Physical and Spiritual Health 446; Hmong and Their Transnational Politics 449; Hmong and Their Formidable Future 451; Summing Up

Bibliography

Index