Atmospheric Thermodynamics

I. Review of Basic Concepts and Systems of Units.- 1.1. Systems.- 1.2. Properties.- 1.3. Composition and State of a System.- 1.4. Equilibrium.- 1.5. Temperature. Temperature Scales.- 1.6. Systems of Units.- 1.7. Work of Expansion.- 1.8. Modifications and Processes. Reversibility.- 1.9. State Variables and State Functions. Equation of State.- 1.10. Equation of State for Gases.- 1.11. Mixture of Ideal Gases.- 1.12. Atmospheric Air Composition.- Problems.- II. The First Principle of Thermodynamics.- 2.1. Internal Energy.- 2.2. Heat.- 2.3. The First Principle. Enthalpy.- 2.4. Expressions of Q. Heat Capacities.- 2.5. Calculation of Internal Energy and Enthalpy.- 2.6. Latent Heats of Pure Substances. Kirchhoff’s Equation.- 2.7. Adiabatic Processes in Ideal Gases. Potential Temperature.- 2.8. Polytropic Processes.- Problems.- III. The Second Principle of Thermodynamics.- 3.1. The Entropy.- 3.2. Thermodynamic Scale of Absolute Temperature.- 3.3. Formulations of the Second Principle.- 3.4. Lord Kelvin’s and Clausius’ Statements of the Second Principle.- 3.5. Joint Mathematical Expressions of the First and Second Principles. Thermodynamic Potentials.- 3.6. Equilibrium Conditions and the Sense of Natural Processes.- 3.7. Calculation of Entropy.- 3.8. Thermodynamic Equations of State. Calculation of Internal Energy and Enthalpy.- 3.9. Thermodynamic Functions of Ideal Gases.- 3.10. Entropy of Mixing for Ideal Gases.- 3.11. Difference Between Heat Capacities at Constant Pressure and at Constant Volume.- Problems.- IV. Water-Air Systems.- 4.1. Heterogeneous Systems.- 4.2. Fundamental Equations for Open Systems.- 4.3. Equations for the Heterogeneous System. Internal Equilibrium.- 4.4. Summary of Basic Formulas for Heterogeneous Systems.- 4.5. Number of Independent Variables.-4.6. Phase-Transition Equilibria for Water.- 4.7. Thermodynamic Surface for Water Substance.- 4.8. Clausius-Clapeyron Equation.- 4.9. Water Vapor and Moist Air.- 4.10. Humidity Variables.- 4.11. Heat Capacities of Moist Air.- 4.12. Moist Air Adiabats.- 4.13. Enthalpy, Internal Energy and Entropy of Moist Air and of a Cloud.- Problems.- V. Aerological Diagrams.- 5.1. Purpose of Aerological Diagrams and Selection of Coordinates.- 5.2. Clapeyron Diagram.- 5.3. Tephigram.- 5.4. Curves for Saturated Adiabatic Expansion. Relative Orientation of Fundamental Lines.- 5.5. Emagram or Neuhoff Diagram.- 5.6. Refsdal Diagram.- 5.7. Pseudoadiabatic or Stüve Diagram.- 5.8. Area Equivalence.- 5.9. Summary of Diagrams.- 5.10. Determination of Mixing Ratio from the Relative Humidity.- 5.11. Area Computation and Energy Integrals.- Problems.- VI. Thermodynamic Processes in the Atmosphere.- 6.1. Isobaric Cooling. Dew and Frost Points.- 6.2. Condensation in the Atmosphere by Isobaric Cooling.- 6.3. Adiabatic Isobaric (Isenthalpic) Processes. Equivalent and Wet-Bulb Temperatures.- 6.4. Adiabatic Isobaric Mixing (Horizontal Mixing) Without Condensation.- 6.5. Adiabatic Isobaric Mixing with Condensation.- 6.6. Adiabatic Expansion in the Atmosphere.- 6.7. Saturation of Air by Adiabatic Ascent.- 6.8. Reversible Saturated Adiabatic Process.- 6.9. Pseudoadiabatic Process.- 6.10. Effect of Freezing in a Cloud.- 6.11. Vertical Mixing.- 6.12. Pseudo- or Adiabatic Equivalent and Wet-Bulb Temperatures.- 6.13. Summary of Temperature and Humidity Parameters. Conservative Properties.- Problems.- VII. Atmospheric Statics.- 7.1. The Geopotential Field.- 7.2. The Hydrostatic Equation.- 7.3. Equipotential and Isobaric Surfaces. Dynamic and Geopotential Height.- 7.4. Thermal Gradients.- 7.5.Constant-Lapse-Rate Atmospheres.- 7.6. Atmosphere of Homogeneous Density.- 7.7. Dry-Adiabatic Atmosphere.- 7.8. Isothermal Atmosphere.- 7.9. Standard Atmosphere.- 7.10. Altimeter.- 7.11. Integration of the Hydrostatic Equation.- Problems.- VIII. Vertical Stability.- 8.1. The Parcel Method.- 8.2. Stability Criteria.- 8.3. Lapse Rates for Dry, Moist and Saturated Adiabatic Ascents.- 8.4. The Lapse Rates of the Parcel and of the Environment.- 8.5. Stability Criteria for Adiabatic Processes.- 8.6. Conditional Instability.- 8.7. Oscillations in a Stable Layer.- 8.8. The Layer Method for Analyzing Stability.- 8.9. Entrainment.- 8.10. Potential or Convective Instability.- 8.11. Processes Producing Stability Changes for Dry Air.- 8.12. Stability Parameters of Saturated and Unsaturated Air, and Their Time Changes.- 8.13. Radiative Processes and Their Thermodynamic Consequences.- 8.14. Maximum Rate of Precipitation.- 8.15. Internal and Potential Energy of the Atmosphere.- 8.16. Internal and Potential Energy of a Layer with Constant Lapse Rate.- 8.17. Margules’ Calculations on Overturning Air Masses.- 8.18. Transformations of a Layer with Constant Lapse Rate.- 8.19. The Available Potential Energy.- Problems.- Appendix I.- Answers to Problems.