Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis (eBook)

Cover 1
Contents 6
Contributors 30
Acronyms, Abbreviations, and Symbols 32
Foreword to the First Edition 44
Foreword to the Second Edition 46
Preface to the First Edition 48
Preface to the Second Edition 52
Chapter 1. Nuclear Radiation, Its Interaction with Matter and Radioisotope Decay 54
I. Introduction 55
II. Particulate Radiation 56
III. Electromagnetic Radiation„Photons 110
IV. Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Matter 124
V. Stopping Power and Linear Energy Transfer 137
VI. Radioisotope Decay 146
VII. Radioactivity Units and Radionuclide Mass 166
References 170
Chapter 2. Gas Ionization Detectors 176
I. Introduction: Principles of Radiation Detection by Gas Ionization 176
II. Characterization of Gas Ionization Detectors 178
III. Definition of Operating Characteristics of Gas Ionization Detectors 180
IV. Ion Chambers 182
V. Proportional Gas Ionization Detectors 189
VI. Geiger-Mueller Counters 207
VII. Special Types of Ionization Detectors 212
References 224
Chapter 3. Solid State Nuclear Track Detectors 232
I. Introduction 232
II. Fundamental Principles and Methods of Solid State Nuclear Track Detection 235
III. Measurements and Applications 252
IV. Conclusion 282
Acknowledgments 283
References 283
Chapter 4. Semiconductor Detectors 292
I. Introduction 292
II. Ge Detectors 300
III. Si Detectors 347
IV. Spectroscopic Analyses with Semiconductor Detectors 360
References 395
Chapter 5. Liquid Scintillation Analysis: Principles and Practice 400
I. Introduction 401
II. Basic Theory 402
III. Liquid Scintillation Counter (LSC) or Analyzer (LSA) 408
IV. Quench in Liquid Scintillation Counting 413
V. Methods of Quench Correction in Liquid Scintillation Counting 417
VI. Analysis of X-ray, Gamma-Ray, Atomic Electron, and Positron Emitters 457
VII. Common Interferences in Liquid Scintillation Counting 462
VIII. Multiple Radionuclide Analysis 471
IX. Radionuclide Standardization 498
X. Neutron/Gamma-Ray Measurement and Discrimination 522
XI. Microplate Scintillation and Luminescence Counting 532
XII. Photon Electron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation (PERALS) Spectrometry 539
XIII. Simultaneous a–b Analysis 543
XIV. Scintillation in Dense (Liquid) Rare Gases 550
XV. Radionuclide Identification 553
XVI. Air Luminescence Counting 556
XVII. Liquid Scintillation Counter Performance 560
XVIII. Conclusions 570
References 571
Chapter 6. Environmental Liquid Scintillation Analysis 590
I. Introduction 591
II. Low Level Liquid Scintillation Counting Theory 592
III. Alpha/Beta Discrimination 607
IV. Analysis Of Beta Emitting Radionuclides 619
V. Analysis of Alpha-Emitting Radionuclides Using Conventional LS Spectrometers with Pulse Shape Discrimination 643
References 650
Chapter 7. Radioactivity Counting Statistics 662
I. Introduction 662
II. Statistical Distributions 663
III. Analysis of a Sample of Results 670
IV. Statistical Inference 681
V. Regression 689
VI. Detection Limits 693
References 706
Relevant Statistical Reference Tables 707
Chapter 8. Sample Preparation Techniques for Liquid Scintillation Analysis 708
I. Introduction 709
II. LSC Cocktail Components 709
III. Dissolution 716
IV. Solubilization 726
V. Combustion 736
VI. Comparison of Sample Oxidation and Solubilization Techniques 738
VII. Carbon Dioxide Trapping and Counting 743
VIII. Biological Samples 745
IX. Filter and Membrane Counting 748
X. Sample Stability Troubleshooting 754
XI. Swipe Assays 756
XII. Preparation and Use of Quench Curves in Liquid Scintillation Counting 758
References 768
Chapter 9. Cherenkov Counting 772
I. Introduction 773
II. Theory 774
III. Quenching and Quench Correction 779
IV. Cherenkov Counting Parameters 786
V. Cherenkov Counting in the Dry State 796
VI. Radionuclide Analysis with Silica Aerogels 800
VII. Cherenkov Counting in Microplate Format 802
VIII. Multiple Radionuclide Analysis 807
IX. Radionuclide Standardization 814
X. Gamma-Ray Detection 820
XI. Particle Identification 822
XII. Applications in Radionuclide Analysis 826
XIII. Advantages and Disadvantages 840
XIV. Recommendations 841
References 842
Chapter 10. Radioisotope Mass Spectrometry 852
I. Introduction 852
II. Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS) 854
III. Glow Discharge Mass Spectrometry (GDMS) 857
IV. Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) 860
V. Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) 863
VI. Resonance Ionization Mass Spectrometry (RIMS) 872
VII. Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) 879
References 886
Chapter 11. Solid Scintillation Analysis 898
I. Introduction 899
II. Principles of Solid Scintillation 900
III. Solid Scintillation Analyzer 911
IV. Concepts and Principles of Solid Scintillation Analysis 936
V. Automated Solid Scintillation Analyzers 951
VI. Detection of Neutrons 974
VII. Scintillation in Plastic Media 980
VIII. Scintillating Glass Fiber Neutron Detectors 997
IX. Bonner-sphere Neutron Spectrometry 1003
X. Lucas Cell 1006
XI. Radionuclide Standardization 1007
XII. Phoswich Detectors 1012
References 1018
Chapter 12. Flow Scintillation Analysis 1042
I. Introduction 1042
II. Basics of Flow Scintillation Analysis Instrumentation 1044
III. Principles of Flow Scintillation Counting 1063
IV. Flow Scintillator Selection 1077
V. Stopped-flow Detection 1081
VI. Applications 1082
References 1107
Chapter 13. Radionuclide Imaging 1116
I. Introduction 1116
II. Film Autoradiography 1117
III. Storage Phosphor Screen Imaging 1125
IV. Electronic Autoradiography 1143
V. CCD Camera Imaging 1160
VI. Future of Radionuclide Imaging 1175
References 1175
Chapter 14. Automated Radiochemical Separation, Analysis, and Sensing 1181
I. Introduction 1181
II. Radiochemical Separations 1182
III. Automation of Radiochemical Analysis Using Sequential Injection Fluidics 1185
IV. Selected Radiochemical Analysis Examples 1193
V. Automation Using Robotics 1201
VI. An Automated Radionuclide Analyzer for Nuclear Waste Process Streams 1202
VII. RadioNuclide Sensors for Water Monitoring 1205
VIII. Medical Isotope Generation 1211
IX. Discussion 1212
Acknowledgments 1212
References 1212
Chapter 15. Radiation Dosimetry 1217
I. Introduction 1218
II. Quantities and Units 1219
III. Fundamentals 1223
IV. Measurements (Physical Dosimetry) 1233
V. Measurements (Biological Dosimetry) 1247
VI. Applications 1250
VII. Issues and Opportunities for Future Developments 1255
VIII. Appendix 1255
References 1257
Appendix A. Table of Radioactive Isotopes 1261
Appendix B. Particle Range-Energy Correlations 1300
Index 1304