Introduction to Nuclear Waste Immobilisation (eBook)

Front Cover 1
An Introduction to Nuclear Waste Immobilisation 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 8
Foreword 14
Preface 16
Acknowledgements 18
Chapter 1. Introduction to Immobilisation 20
1.1. Introduction 20
1.2. Importance of Waste 21
1.3. Radioactive Waste 22
1.4. Recycling 23
1.5. Waste Minimisation 24
1.6. Immobilisation 25
1.7. Time Frames 25
Bibliography 26
Chapter 2. Nuclear Decay 28
2.1. Nuclear Decay 28
2.2. Decay Law 29
2.3. Radioactive Equilibrium 30
2.4. Activity 31
2.5. Alpha Decay 32
2.6. Beta Decay 33
2.7. Gamma Decay 34
2.8. Spontaneous Fission 35
2.9. Radionuclide Characteristics 36
Bibliography 40
Chapter 3. Contaminants and Hazards 42
3.1. Elemental Abundance 42
3.2. Migration and Redistribution 43
3.3. Hazard Potential 46
3.4. Relative Hazard 48
3.5. Real hazard Concept 49
3.6. Form Factors that Diminish the Hazard 50
Bibliography 52
Chapter 4. Heavy Metals 54
4.1. Metallic Contaminants 54
4.2. Biogeochemical Cycle 54
4.3. Heavy Metals 56
4.4. Heavy Metals in Living Species 57
4.5. Lead 58
4.6. Mercury 59
4.7. Cadmium 59
4.8. Arsenic 60
Bibliography 60
Chapter 5. Naturally Occurring Radionuclides 62
5.1. NORM and TENORM 62
5.2. Primordial Radionuclides 62
5.3. Cosmogenic Radionuclides 66
5.4. Natural Radionuclides in Igneous Rocks 66
5.5. Natural Radionuclides in Sedimentary Rocks and Soils 67
5.6. Natural Radionuclides in Sea Water 69
5.7. Radon Emissions 69
5.8. Natural Radionuclides in the Human Body 70
Bibliography 71
Chapter 6. Background Radiation 72
6.1. Radiation is Natural 72
6.2. Dose Units 73
6.3. Biological Consequences of Irradiation 74
6.4. Background Radiation 77
Bibliography 79
Chapter 7. Nuclear Waste Regulations 80
7.1. Regulatory Organisations 80
7.2. Protection Philosophies 81
7.3. Regulation of Radioactive Materials and Sources 82
7.4. Exemption Criteria and Levels 82
7.5. Clearance of Materials from Regulatory Control 83
7.6. Double Standards 85
7.7. Dose Limits 86
7.8. Control of Radiation Hazards 86
Bibliography 88
Chapter 8. Principles of Nuclear Waste Management 90
8.1. International Consensus 90
8.2. Objective of Radioactive Waste Management 91
8.3. Fundamental Principles 91
8.4. Comments on the Fundamental Principles 91
8.5. Ethical Principles 97
8.6. Joint Convention 97
Bibliography 98
Chapter 9. Sources and Characteristics of Nuclear Wastes 100
9.1. Key Waste Characteristics 100
9.2. Classification Schemes 100
9.3. Examples of Waste Classification 103
9.4. Sources of Waste 103
9.5. Front End and Operational NFC Waste 107
9.6. Back End Open NFC Waste 109
9.7. Back End Closed NFC Waste 110
9.8. Back End NFC Decommissioning Waste 114
9.9. Non-NFC Wastes 115
9.10. Accidental Wastes 119
Bibliography 122
Chapter 10. Short-Lived Waste Radionuclides 124
10.1. Introduction 124
10.2. Tritium 124
10.3. Cobalt-60 127
10.4. Strontium-90 128
10.5. Caesium-137 130
Bibliography 132
Chapter 11. Long-Lived Waste Radionuclides 134
11.1. Introduction 134
11.2. Carbon-14 134
11.3. Technetium-99 136
11.4. Iodine-129 138
11.5. Plutonium 139
11.6. Neptunium-237 141
11.7. Nuclear Criticality 142
Bibliography 142
Chapter 12. Management and Characterisation of Radioactive Wastes 144
12.1. Management Roadmaps 144
12.2. Predisposal 144
12.3. Disposal 148
12.4. Characterisation 150
Bibliography 152
Chapter 13. Pre-Treatment of Radioactive Wastes 154
13.1. Pre-Treatment Definition 154
13.2. Collection and Segregation 155
13.3. Adjustment 155
13.4. Size Reduction 156
13.5. Packaging 158
13.6. Decontamination 159
Bibliography 165
Chapter 14. Treatment of Radioactive Wastes 168
14.1. Treatment Objectives 168
14.2. Treatment of Aqueous Wastes 169
14.3. Treatment of Organic Liquid Wastes 179
14.4. Treatment of Solid Wastes 182
14.5. Treatment of Gaseous and Airborne Effluents 192
14.6. Partitioning and Transmutation 194
Bibliography 195
Chapter 15. Immobilisation of Radioactive Wastes in Cement 198
15.1. Waste Immobilisation 198
15.2. Waste-Form Leaching Behaviour 198
15.3. Immobilisation Techniques 200
15.4. Immobilisation in Hydraulic Cements 201
15.5. Hydraulic Cements 202
15.6. Cement Hydration 204
15.7. Hydrated Cement Composition 205
15.8. Cementation of Radioactive Wastes 207
15.9. Modified and Composite Cement Systems 208
15.10. Cementation Technology 212
15.11. Acceptance Criteria 215
Bibliography 218
Chapter 16. Immobilisation of Radioactive Wastes in Bitumen 220
16.1. Bituminisation 220
16.2. Composition and Properties of Bitumen 220
16.3. Bituminous Materials for Waste Immobilisation 222
16.4. Bituminisation Technique 223
16.5. Acceptance Criteria 227
16.6. Bitumen Versus Cement 228
Bibliography 229
Chapter 17. Immobilisation of Radioactive Wastes in Glass 232
17.1. Vitrification 232
17.2. Immobilisation Mechanisms 233
17.3. Retention of Radionuclides 235
17.4. Nuclear Waste Glasses 236
17.5. Nuclear Waste Glass Compositions 236
17.6. Borosilicate Glasses 237
17.7. Role of Boron Oxide 241
17.8. Role of Intermediates and Modifiers 243
17.9. Difficult Elements 245
17.10. Phosphate Glasses 246
17.11. Glass Composites 248
17.12. Vitrification Processes 251
17.13. Cold Crucible Melters 257
17.14. Vitrification Technology 260
17.15. Calcination 262
17.16. Radionuclide Volatility 264
17.18. Acceptance Criteria 266
Bibliography 267
Chapter 18. New Immobilising Hosts and Technologies 270
18.1. New Approaches 270
18.2. Crystalline Waste-Forms 271
18.3. Polyphase Crystalline Waste-Forms: Synroc 275
18.4. Polyphase Crystalline Waste-Forms: Composites 276
18.5. New Technological Approaches 278
18.6. Metal Matrix Immobilisation 282
Bibliography 284
Chapter 19. Nuclear Waste Disposal 288
19.1. Disposal/Storage Concepts 288
19.2. Retention Times 288
19.3. Multi-Barrier Concept 289
19.4. Disposal/Storage Options 290
19.5. Role of the EBS 295
19.6. Importance of Geology 296
19.7. Transport of Radionuclides 300
19.8. Disposal/Storage Experience 302
19.9. Acceptance Criteria 304
Bibliography 305
Chapter 20. Performance Assessment 308
20.1. Safety and Performance Assessments 308
20.2. Safety Requirements 308
20.3. Safety Case Content 310
20.4. Cement Performance 312
20.5. Bitumen Performance 314
20.6. Glass Performance 314
20.7. Radiation Effects 317
20.8. Research Laboratories 321
20.9. Conclusion 321
Bibliography 323
Index 326