Yearbook on Space Policy 2008/2009 (eBook)

Title Page 
4 
Copyright Page 
5 
Preface 6
Table of Contents 8
List of acronyms 16
PART 1 THE YEAR IN SPACE 
28 
European space activities in the global context 
29 
1. Global political and economic trends 29
1.1. Global economic outlook 29
1.2. Political developments 30
1.2.1. Security 31
1.2.2. Environment 33
1.2.3. Energy 35
1.2.4. Resources 36
1.2.5. Knowledge 38
1.2.6. Mobility 39
1.3. Main science and technology indicators relevant for space activities 41
1.3.1. Science and technology inputs 41
1.3.2. Science and technology outputs 43
2. Worldwide space policies and strategies 44
2.1. The United Nations system 44
2.1.1. United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) 45
2.1.2. UNGA Committees 45
2.1.3. Other UN bodies and organs monitoring outer space activities 47
2.2. The Group on Earth Observation 49
2.3. Regional cooperation in space activities 49
2.4. Europe 51
2.4.1. European Space Agency 51
2.4.2. European Union 53
2.4.3. Other European institutions 56
2.4.4. EUMETSAT 57
2.4.5. National governments 58
2.4.5.1. France 58
2.4.5.2. Germany 60
2.4.5.3. Italy 61
2.4.5.4. The United Kingdom 62
2.5. The United States 63
2.6. Russia 65
2.7. Japan 66
2.8. China 67
2.9. India 68
2.10. Emerging space powers 69
3. Worldwide space budgets and revenues 71
3.1. Overview of institutional space budgets 71
3.2. Overview of commercial space markets 73
3.3. Evolution of the space industry 76
3.3.1. Industrial evolutions in Europe 76
3.3.2. Industrial evolutions in the United States 79
3.3.3. Industrial evolutions in Russia 81
3.3.4. Industrial evolutions in Japan 82
3.3.5. Industrial evolutions in China 82
3.4. Industrial overview 83
3.4.1. Launch sector 84
3.4.2. Satellite manufacturing sector 87
3.4.3. Satellite operators sector 90
4. The security dimension 91
4.1. The global space military context 91
4.2. Europe 93
4.2.1. National initiatives 94
4.2.2. European Union level 96
4.2.2.1. Council/Space Council 97
4.2.2.2. European Commission 98
4.2.2.3. Agencies 98
4.2.2.4. European Parliament 99
4.2.3. European Space Agency 99
4.2.4. Other European institutions 100
4.3. The United States 101
4.4. Russia 104
4.5. Japan 105
4.6. China 106
4.7. India 107
4.8. Other selected space actors 108
4.9. Threats to the space environment 109
Developments in space policies, programmes and technologies throughout the world and in Europe. Wolfgang Rathgeber and Christophe Venet 125
1. Space policies and programmes 125
1.1. Highlights in policies and programmes 125
1.2. Highlights in partnerships 126
2. Space transportation 129
2.1. Europe 130
2.2. United States 131
2.3. Russia 133
2.4. Japan 134
2.5. China 135
2.6. India 135
2.7. Emerging actors 136
2.8. Industrial comparison 137
3. Space sciences and exploration 140
3.1. Human spaceflight activities 141
3.2. Lunar exploration 143
3.3. Mars exploration 145
3.4. Saturn exploration 146
3.5. Venus exploration 147
3.6. Mercury exploration 147
3.7. Jupiter exploration 148
3.8. Solar observation 148
3.9. Outer solar system exploration and observation 149
3.10. International cooperation in space exploration 150
4. Satellite applications 151
4.1. Space-based communications 151
4.2. Space-based positioning, navigation and timing systems 156
4.3. Space-based Earth observation 161
5. Technology developments 165
5.1. Propulsion 165
5.2. Information technology 166
5.3. Spacecraft operations and design 166
5.4. Suborbital activities 167
5.5. Other technologies 169
5.6. Innovation policy 169
PART 2 VIEWS AND INSIGHTS 178
1. The new geostrategic context for space and the positioning of Europe. 179
1.1. A new strategic context for space policies 179
1.2. International security and space capabilities 180
1.3. A geostrategic approach to understanding space policies 181
1.4. The position of Europe 183
1.5. Europe.s role in the global context 184
1.6. Conclusion 185
2. Forecasting the consequences of the "Crash of 2008" on space activities. 189
2.1. Introduction 189
2.2. Macroeconomic effects on space activities 192
2.2.1. Space and GDP 192
2.2.2. Effects of the present financial crisis 194
2.2.3. Forecasting space expenditure on the basis of GDP 195
2.3. Microeconomic effects 198
2.3.1. Workforce effects 198
2.3.1.1. Higher demand for definite term contracts 198
2.3.1.2. Higher demand for multidisciplinary workforce 198
2.3.2. Financing of space projects 199
2.3.3. Increased vigilance against cost overruns 200
2.4. Conclusion 202
3. Space as a strategic policy area for Europe and the European Union. 204
3.1. Space as a strategic policy for Europe 204
3.2. Europe's need for a space policy and the new European space politics 207
3.3. Capabilities to act in space in the 21st century 209
3.4. Trying something completely new? 211
4. GMES – Status review and policy developments 213
4.1. Background 213
4.1.1. GMES brief history 213
4.1.2. GMES components 215
4.1.3. Funding strategy 215
4.2. GMES services serving EU policies 216
4.2.1. GMES services 216
4.2.1.1. Marine services 217
4.2.1.2. Land services 218
4.2.1.3. Atmospheric services 218
4.2.1.4. Emergency response services 218
4.2.1.5. Security services 219
4.2.1.6. Climate change services 219
4.2.2. Governance of GMES 219
4.2.2.1. Space Council 220
4.2.2.2. GMES Advisory Council 221
4.2.2.3. ESA Council and Sub-ordinate Bodies 221
4.2.2.4. EU FP7 Programme Committee 221
4.2.2.5. The EC-ESA Agreement on the GMES Space Component 221
4.2.2.6. The EC GMES Bureau and ESA GMES Space Office 222
4.3. Challenges of today's governance 222
4.4. GMES Space Component 223
4.4.1. GMES satellites 224
4.4.1.1. Synthetic Aperture Radar missions 224
4.4.1.1.1. Sentinel-1 224
4.4.1.2. Optical missions 225
4.4.1.2.1. Sentinel-2 225
4.4.1.2.2. Sentinel-2 type contributing missions 226
4.4.1.3. Global land and ocean missions including altimetry 226
4.4.1.3.1. Sentinel-3 226
4.4.1.4. Atmospheric Missions 227
4.4.1.4.1. Sentinel-4 and -5 227
4.4.1.4.2. Sentinel-4 and -5 type contributing missions 228
4.5. Sentinel Data Policy 228
4.5.1. Other space data policies 229
4.6. Key issues on GMES and lessons learned 231
5. Integrated applications: a new way forward for Europe – Some legal thoughts. 
233 
5.1. Europe and the integration of Earth observation, telecommunications and navigation 233
5.2. The ESA legal framework and integrated space applications 234
5.3. The European Union legal framework and integrated space applications 237
5.4. External legal parameters: the ITU framework and the UN space treaties 240
5.5. Concluding remarks 243
6. The past and future of security-related satellite missions in Europe. 248
6.1. Dual use 249
6.2. National programmes of European States 250
6.2.1. Reconnaissance 250
6.2.1.1. SAR-Lupe 251
6.2.1.2. COSMO-Skymed 251
6.2.1.3. SPOT 251
6.2.1.4. Helios 252
6.2.1.5. RapidEye 252
6.2.1.6. PLEIADES 252
6.2.1.7. INGENIO/PAZ/SEOSAT 252
6.2.1.8. SPIRALE 253
6.2.1.9. ESSAIM 253
6.2.2. Communication 253
6.2.2.1. Skynet 254
6.2.2.2. SYRACUSE 254
6.2.2.3. SICRAL 254
6.2.2.4. SatComBW 254
6.2.2.5. XTAR 254
6.3. Cooperation between ESA and EUMETSAT in Earth observation 255
6.3.1. Meteosat 255
6.4. ESA programmes 255
6.4.1. ERS 1 and 2 256
6.4.2. ENVISAT 256
6.4.3. GOCE 256
6.4.4. SMOS 256
6.4.5. CryoSat2 257
6.4.6. ADM/Aeolus 257
6.4.7. SWARM 257
6.4.8. EarthCare 257
6.5. Cooperation between ESA and EU/EC on Earth observation 258
6.5.1. Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) 258
6.5.1.1. Sentinel-1 258
6.5.1.2. Sentinel-2 258
6.5.1.3. Sentinel-3 259
6.5.1.4. Sentinel-4 and -5 259
6.6. Navigation 259
6.6.1. Galileo 259
6.7. Financial threats? 260
6.8. Outlook – complementary strengths 260
7. Latest trends in the national authorisation and regulation of space activities in Europe. 262
7.1. Introduction 262
7.2. Is there a need for national space legislation? 263
7.3. Latest trends in the national authorisation and regulation of space activities in Europe 263
7.3.1. Belgium 264
7.3.2. The Netherlands 264
7.3.3. France 265
7.4. The contents of the authorisation regimes 266
7.4.1. Who authorises? 266
7.4.2. What kind of activities require authorisation? 267
7.4.3. What are the conditions? 268
7.4.3.1. How is compliance controlled? 270
7.5. European perspective 270
7.6. Latest trends from the Legal Subcommittee: The working group on national legislation relevant to the peaceful exploration and use of outer space 272
7.7. Conclusion 274
8. Iridium-Cosmos collision and its implications for space operations. 279
8.1. Introduction 279
8.2. Determination of liability for damage 280
8.3. Consequences and implications of the collision 284
8.3.1. Regulatory uncertainty 284
8.3.2. Increasing risks and cost of space operations 285
8.4. Efforts to keep space for safe and sustainable development and use 290
8.4.1. Prevention: debris mitigation regulatory measures 290
8.4.2. Prevention: space situational awareness and space traffic management 291
8.4.3. Cure: removal of space debris 294
8.5. Conclusion – message 295
9. The Space Policy of the New U.S. Administration. 301
9.1. Introduction 301
9.2. Civil Space Policy 302
9.3. National security space policy 306
9.4. Looking Ahead 308
10. China's space programme and Asia. 311
10.1. Introduction 311
10.2. Satellites 313
10.3. Launchers 314
10.4. Shenzhou 7 spacecraft 314
10.5. Lunar mission 315
10.6. Space station 316
10.7. Impact on Asia 316
10.7.1. Japan 316
10.7.2. South Korea 317
10.7.3. North Korea 317
10.7.4. India 318
10.7.5. Iran 319
10.8. Conclusions 319
PART 3 FACTS AND FIGURES 
325 
1. Chronology: July 2008–June 2009 326
1.1. Access to space 326
1.2. Space science and exploration 330
1.3. Applications 332
1.4. Policy and international cooperation 336
2. Country profiles 338
3. Bibliography of space policy publications July 2008–June 2009 363
3.1. Monographs 363
3.2. Articles 365
List of figures and tables 370
About the authors 373
Index 380