The Forensic Laboratory Handbook Procedures and Practice (eBook)

The Forensic Laboratory Handbook Proceduresand Practice 3
Preface 5
Contents 7
Contributors 9
Chapter 1: Forensic Laboratory Accreditation 13
1.1 Purpose of Accreditation 13
1.2 Why Accreditation? 14
1.3 Employee Responsibilities 14
1.4 Quality System 15
1.5 The Process of Accreditation 17
1.5.1 The Choice 17
1.5.2 Applying 18
1.5.3 The Assessment Team 18
1.5.4 Assessment Team Preparation 19
1.5.5 Laboratory Preparation 19
1.5.6 On-Site Assessment 20
1.5.7 The Report 21
1.5.8 Corrective Actions 21
1.5.9 Accreditation Maintenance 22
1.6 Continuous Improvement 23
1.6.1 Plan 23
1.6.2 Do 23
1.6.3 Check 23
1.6.4 Act 24
1.7 Glossary 24
1.8 Questions 25
1.9 About the Author 26
References 26
Chapter 2: Forensic Biology: Serology and DNA 27
2.1 Introduction 28
2.2 Types of Evidence Examined 28
2.3 Planning the Examination 30
2.4 Evidence Processing, Note Taking, and Report Writing 31
2.5 Serology Testing 32
2.5.1 Identification of Semen 32
2.5.2 Acid Phosphatase Screening 33
2.5.3 Alternate Light Source or Ultraviolet (UV) Light 33
2.5.4 Microscopic Identification of Spermatozoa 34
2.5.5 Protein Confirmation of Semen 35
2.6 Identification of Blood 36
2.6.1 Presumptive Testing for Blood 36
2.6.2 Species Testing of Blood 37
2.6.3 ABO Blood Typing 37
2.6.4 Blood Spatter Interpretation 38
2.7 Identification of Saliva 38
2.8 DNA Testing 39
2.8.1 DNA Extraction 39
2.8.2 Differential DNA Extraction 40
2.8.3 DNA Quantification 42
2.8.4 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) and Early PCR-Based Methods 42
2.8.5 Short Tandem Repeat (STR) Analysis 43
2.8.6 Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Sequencing 48
2.8.7 Y-Chromosome STR Analysis 50
2.8.8 Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) Analysis 50
2.8.9 Mini-STR 51
2.8.10 Low Copy Number (LCN) DNA Testing 51
2.9 Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) Database 52
2.10 DNA in Criminal Proceedings 53
2.11 Sample Processing 53
2.11.1 Case Batching 54
2.11.2 Laboratory Automation 54
2.11.3 Outsourcing 54
2.12 Quality Assurance 55
2.13 Laboratory Accreditation 55
2.14 Educational Requirements for Forensic Biology Personnel 55
2.15 Proficiency Testing 56
2.16 Certification 56
2.17 Case Studies 56
2.17.1 Case Study: Probable Saliva for CODIS 56
2.17.2 Case Study: Aggravated Sexual Assault 57
Recommended Readings 57
Websites 58
2.18 Glossary 58
2.19 Questions 60
2.20 About the Authors 61
References 61
Chapter 3: Forensic Chemistry/Controlled Substances 63
3.1 Introduction 64
3.2 Examination Process 65
3.2.1 Scope of Analysis 65
3.2.2 Planning 66
3.2.3 Documentation 67
3.2.4 Chain of Custody 68
3.2.5 Working Notes 69
3.2.6 Final Report 69
3.3 Analysis 73
3.3.1 Botanical Examinations 73
3.3.1.1 Marijuana 76
3.3.1.2 Hashish 78
3.3.1.3 Peyote 78
3.3.1.4 Mushrooms 79
3.3.1.5 Documentation 81
3.3.2 Chemical Examinations 81
3.3.2.1 Wet Chemical Procedures 82
3.3.2.2 Chemical Color Tests 82
3.3.2.3 Microcrystal Tests 83
3.3.2.4 Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC) 85
3.3.3 Extractions 86
3.3.3.1 Physical Extraction 87
3.3.3.2 Dry Wash and Dry Extraction 87
3.3.3.3 Liquid/Liquid Extractions 87
3.3.4 Documentation 88
3.4 Instrumental Examinations 89
3.4.1 Nonspecific Examinations 89
3.4.1.1 Ultraviolet Spectroscopy 89
3.4.1.2 Gas Chromatography 91
3.4.1.3 Liquid Chromatography 92
3.4.2 Specific Examinations 92
3.4.2.1 Mass Spectroscopy 92
3.4.2.2 Infrared Spectroscopy 94
3.4.3 Documentation 96
3.4.4 Data Interpretation 96
3.5 Swgdrug 97
3.5.1 Examination Categories 97
3.5.2 Recommendations 98
3.6 ASTM Standards 99
3.6.1 Controlled Substance Specific Standards 99
3.6.2 Generic Analytical Standards 99
3.6.3 Chromatography Analysis Standards 100
3.6.4 Infrared Spectroscopy Analysis Standards 100
3.6.5 Mass Spectrometry Analysis Standard 100
3.7 Quality Assurance (QA)/Quality Control (QC) 101
3.8 Clandestine Labs 101
3.8.1 Crime Scene Support 102
3.8.2 Laboratory Analysis 103
3.8.3 The Chemist 104
3.8.4 Expert Opinions 104
3.9 Summary 105
3.11 Questions 111
3.12 About the Author 113
References and Suggested Readings 113
Chapter 4: Crime Reconstruction and Evidence Dynamics 116
4.1 Introduction 116
4.2 The Scientific Method 118
4.3 Types of Evidence Analyzed 119
4.3.1 Blood 120
4.3.2 Firearms 120
4.3.3 Trace Evidence 121
4.3.4 Position of Evidence 121
4.4 What Can Be Determined 121
4.4.1 Case One 122
4.4.2 Case Two 122
4.5 Tying It All Together 123
4.6 Why Reconstruct A Crime? 123
4.6.1 Was There A Crime? 124
4.6.2 Crime Elements 124
4.6.2.1 Case One 124
4.6.2.2 Case Two 125
4.6.2.3 Case Three 125
4.7 Reconstruction in Behavioral Analysis 126
4.8 Ethics 127
4.9 Evidence Dynamics 128
4.9.1 Case 129
4.10 Conclusion 130
4.11 Questions 130
4.12 About the Author 132
References 133
Chapter 5: Explosives and Arson 134
5.1 Investigations 135
5.1.1 Hazards 135
5.1.2 Crime Scene Personnel 136
5.1.3 Taggants 137
5.1.3.1 Micro 137
5.1.3.2 Chemical 137
5.1.4 Contamination 138
5.1.5 What Happened? 138
5.1.6 Evidence Collection 139
5.2 Laboratory Analysis 139
5.2.1 Explosive Analysis 141
5.2.1.1 Preliminary Tests 142
5.2.1.2 Confirmatory Tests 142
5.2.2 Fire Debris Analysis 147
5.2.2.1 Gas Chromatography (GC) 147
5.2.2.2 Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectroscopy (GC/MS) 148
5.3 Reports and Court 149
5.4 Educational Concerns 151
5.5 Questions 152
5.6 About the Author 153
References 154
Chapter 6: Fingerprints 156
6.1 A Brief History of Fingerprint Identification 157
6.2 An Introduction to the Henry System: Primary Classification 159
6.2.1 Example 162
6.2.2 Example 166
6.3 Ridge Counting and Tracing 166
6.4 Basic Tools of the Fingerprint Examiner 167
6.5 NCIC Fingerprint Classification 167
6.6 Properly Recording a Set of Inked Fingerprints 168
6.7 Live-Scan Fingerprinting 169
6.8 ACE-V Methodology 170
6.8.1 Analysis 171
6.8.2 Comparison 171
6.8.3 Evaluation 171
6.8.4 Verification 171
6.9 Areas of Concern During the Identification Process 171
6.9.1 Peer Pressure 172
6.9.2 Other Pressures 172
6.10 Theory and Hypothesis 175
6.11 Evidence 176
6.11.1 Forged and/or Falsified Evidence 176
6.11.1.1 Case One 178
6.11.1.2 Case Two 180
6.11.2 Evidence Processing 181
6.11.3 Handling Evidence 183
6.12 Courtroom Testimony 183
6.12.1 Daubert Motion 184
6.13 Certification 185
6.13.1 Latent Print Examiner 185
6.13.2 10-Print Examiner 185
6.14 Ethics 186
6.15 Laboratory Accreditation 186
6.16 Frequently Asked Questions About Latent Prints 187
6.16.1 What is a Latent Print? 187
6.16.2 Can You Tell What Hand Made the Latent Print? 187
6.16.3 Can You Tell the Age of a Latent Print? 188
6.16.4 Does Someone Always Leave a Fingerprint on an Item That He Touches? 188
6.16.5 Can You Develop Latent Prints on an Item That Has Been in Water? 188
6.16.6 How Long Will Fingerprints Remain on an Item? 189
6.17 Questions 189
6.18 About the Author 189
References 190
Chapter 7: Legal Issues Concerning Expert Evidence and Testimony 192
7.1 The Nature and Purpose of Expert Opinion Evidence 193
7.1.1 Scope of the Chapter 193
7.1.2 Theory of Admissibility of Expert Testimony 193
7.1.3 Tests of Admissibility 195
7.1.3.1 The Pre-Frye Period of the Common Law 195
7.1.3.2 The Frye Rule: “Expert Testimony in Search of a Rationale” 195
7.1.3.3 The Federal Rules of Evidence Emerge 196
7.1.3.4 Daubert Interprets Federal Rule of Evidence 702 197
7.1.3.5 Daubert Broadened in Kumho Tire v. Carmichael: Other Decisions 198
7.1.4 Expert Opinion in the States: Other Concerns and Considerations 199
7.1.5 Judicial Notice of Underlying Science’s Reliability 199
7.2 Discovery and Disclosure in Criminal Cases 200
7.2.1 The General Purpose and Nature of Disclosure and Discovery 200
7.2.1.1 Informal Disclosure by the Prosecution 200
7.2.2 Laws of Disclosure 201
7.2.2.1 Federal Due Process Obligations 201
7.2.2.2 Pretrial Discovery in Federal and State Courts 201
7.2.2.3 Discovery in Federal Criminal Cases 202
7.2.2.4 American Bar Association Standards 204
7.2.2.5 Discovery Rules of the States 204
7.3 Discovery and Disclosure in Civil Cases 204
7.3.1 General Considerations 204
7.3.2 Scope of Expert Witness Discovery in Civil Cases Under Federal Rule 26 205
7.3.2.1 Discovery Based on the Expert’s Role 205
7.3.2.2 Experts to Be Called as Witnesses 206
7.3.2.3 Non-Witness Consulting Experts 206
7.3.2.4 Experts Informally Consulted But Not Retained 207
7.3.2.5 Experts Who Obtained Independent Information 207
7.3.3 2006 E-Discovery Amendments and ESI (Electronically Stored Information) 208
7.4 The Expert at Trial 208
7.4.1 Qualifying Procedures 208
7.4.2 Experience as an Expert Witness 209
7.4.3 Education and Training 209
7.4.4 Membership in Professional Associations 210
7.4.5 Increased Scrutiny of Experts 210
7.5 Legal Impediments to Expert Testimony 210
7.5.1 Hearsay 210
7.6 Proof of Chain of Custody of Tangible Evidence 211
7.7 Ethical Considerations 212
7.7.1 The Expert’s Ethical Obligations 212
7.7.2 Attorneys’ Ethics in Dealing with Experts 213
7.8 Liability of the Expert Witness for Malpractice 214
7.8.1 Expert Malpractice: A Problem of National Scope 214
7.8.2 Expert Malpractice 215
7.9 Questions 216
7.10 About the Authors 217
References 218
Chapter 8: Digital Evidence 224
8.1 Introduction 224
8.2 Types of Evidence Examined 226
8.3 Forensic Evidence Processing 227
8.3.1 Planning the Examination 228
8.3.2 Analysis 229
8.3.3 Reporting 230
8.4 Quality Assurance 231
8.4.1 Establishing a Program 232
8.4.2 The Quality Assurance Manual 232
8.5 Technology: Existing and on the Horizon 233
8.6 Computer Databases Available 233
8.7 Uses and Limitations of Procedures 234
8.8 Questions 235
8.9 About the Authors 235
References 236
Chapter 9: Firearms and Toolmarks 238
9.1 Introduction 239
9.2 Types of Firearms 241
9.3 Ammunition Components 245
9.4 Manufacturing Processes 249
9.5 Types of Examinations Conducted 249
9.6 Planning and Carrying Out the Examination 250
9.7 Equipment and Tools 250
9.7.1 Microscopes 250
9.7.2 Measuring Tools 252
9.7.3 Water Trap 253
9.7.4 Reference Collections 253
9.8 Case Example 253
9.8.1 Evidence Receipt 254
9.8.2 Evidence Submission 254
9.8.3 Request for Analysis 254
9.8.4 General Evidence Examination 254
9.8.5 Evidence Examination Worksheet 254
9.8.6 Cartridge Case Comparison 257
9.8.7 Bullet Comparison 258
9.8.8 Gunshot Residue Testing 259
9.8.9 Gunshot Residue Examination Worksheet 259
9.8.10 Gunshot Residue Examination Report 260
9.8.11 Report of Scientific Examination 261
9.9 Databases 261
9.10 Criteria for Identification 262
9.11 Comparing Screwdrivers, Pliers, and Other Hand Tools 263
9.12 Serial Number Restoration 263
9.13 The Future 265
9.14 Updates 265
9.14.1 Comparative Lead Analysis 265
9.14.2 Firearms Identification 266
9.15 Case Study 266
9.16 Questions 274
9.17 About the Author 274
References 275
Chapter 10: Forensic Odontology: Teeth and Their Secrets 276
10.1 Introduction 276
10.2 Who is the Forensic Odontologist? 277
10.3 What is Dental Evidence? 277
10.4 Scope of Forensic Odontology 278
10.4.1 Identification Work 278
10.4.2 Age Estimation 279
10.4.3 Disaster Victim Identification 279
10.4.3.1 Mass Disasters 280
The South East Asia Tsunami of December 2004 280
September 11th Attacks 281
SAS 686 Crash, Milan, Italy 282
Scandinavian Star Ferry Fire 283
10.4.3.2 Interpol’s Role in Mass Disasters 283
10.5 Police Cases 284
10.5.1 The Case of an Ambitious Surgeon 284
10.5.2 The Case of a Missing Teen 284
10.5.3 The Case of the Pink Teeth 285
10.6 Injury Analysis 285
10.6.1 Bite Marks 286
10.6.2 Facial and Dental Injuries in Civil or Criminal Trauma 287
10.6.3 Malpractice Cases 287
10.6.4 Anthropology and Archaeology 287
10.7 How to Become a Forensic Odontologist 288
10.8 Conclusions 289
10.9 Questions 290
10.10 About the Author 291
References 291
Chapter 11: Forensic Pathology and the Investigation of Death 293
11.1 The Origins of Death Investigation 294
11.2 Investigating and Documenting Deaths in the United States 295
11.2.1 Reportable Deaths 296
11.2.2 Outcomes of Reported Cases 297
11.2.3 Uses of the Death Certificate 298
11.3 The Cause and Manner of Death 299
11.3.1 Cause of Death 299
11.3.1.1 Proximate Cause 300
11.3.1.2 Immediate Cause of Death 300
11.3.1.3 Mechanism of Death 300
11.3.2 Analysis of Cases 301
11.3.3 Manner of Death 302
11.4 The Autopsy or Postmortem Examination 303
11.4.1 The Hospital Autopsy 303
11.4.2 The Private Autopsy 304
11.4.3 The Forensic or Medicolegal Autopsy 304
11.5 The Medical Examiner’s Office 307
11.5.1 Definitions 307
11.5.2 Components of a Medical Examiner’s Office 308
11.5.2.1 Staff 309
11.5.2.2 Office Accreditation 311
11.6 Selected Topics in Forensic Pathology 311
11.6.1 Firearms Injury 312
11.6.2 Sharp and Blunt Force Injuries 314
11.6.2.1 Blunt Force Injuries 315
11.6.2.2 Sharp Force Injuries 318
11.6.3 Complex Injury Patterns 322
11.6.3.1 Motor Vehicle Collisions and Pedestrian Deaths 322
11.6.3.2 Asphyxia 326
11.6.3.3 Pediatric Accidental and Non-Accidental Injuries 329
11.6.4 Sudden Unexpected Death Due to Natural Causes 330
11.6.4.1 Adults 330
11.6.4.2 Infants and Children 333
11.7 Education and Certification 335
11.7.1 Education of the Forensic Pathologist 335
11.7.2 Board Certification 336
11.8 Court Testimony and Ethics 336
11.8.1 Types of Witnesses 337
11.8.2 Role of the Forensic Pathologist in Court 337
11.8.3 Ethics of Court Testimony 337
11.8.4 Professional Responsibilities of the Medical Examiner 338
11.9 Final Thoughts: Pathology in the Public Interest 339
11.10 Appendix 340
11.11 Questions 341
11.12 About the Author 341
References 342
Chapter 12: Quality in the Forensic Science Laboratory 344
12.1 Introduction 345
12.2 The Quality Management System 346
12.3 The Quality Manual 347
12.3.1 Preparing the Quality Manual 348
12.4 The Quality Manager 349
12.5 Quality Assurance and Quality Control 350
12.5.1 Quality Assurance 350
12.5.2 Quality Control 351
12.5.2.1 Instrument Calibration and Maintenance 351
12.5.2.2 Control Charting and Trend Analysis 352
12.5.2.3 Proficiency Test and Reference Samples 352
12.5.2.4 Method Validations 352
12.6 Audits 353
12.6.1 Introduction 353
12.6.2 Auditing and Management Review 353
12.6.2.1 The Audit Plan 354
12.6.2.2 The Checklist 354
12.6.3 Data Collection 355
12.6.3.1 Objectivity in Data Collection 355
12.6.3.2 Questioning 355
12.6.3.3 Physical Data: Document and Record Review, Environment 356
12.6.4 Analysis Phase 356
12.6.5 Reporting 357
12.6.6 Corrective Action 357
12.6.7 Management Review 357
12.7 Competency 358
12.7.1 Introduction 358
12.7.2 The Job Description 359
12.7.3 Training 360
12.7.3.1 Mentoring 360
12.7.3.2 Group Training 360
12.7.3.3 Student Learning 361
12.8 Laboratory Equipment and Quality Assurance 361
12.8.1 Equipment Selection and Purchase 361
12.8.2 Equipment Preventative Maintenance 361
12.8.3 Calibration 362
12.9 The Test Environment 362
12.9.1 The Laboratory and Equipment 362
12.9.2 Building, Including Access Control 363
12.9.3 Fixtures 363
12.9.4 Heating and Air Conditioning 363
12.9.5 Lighting 364
12.9.6 Surface Materials 364
12.10 Materials and Supplies 364
12.10.1 Specifications 364
12.10.2 Inventory 364
12.11 Records 365
12.12 Statistics 365
12.12.1 Statistics and QA 365
12.12.2 Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion 366
12.12.3 Sample, Population, and Distribution 366
12.12.4 Statistical Control of Quality – Control Charts 367
12.12.5 Uncertainty of Measurement 368
12.13 Standard Operating Procedures and Standard Methods 369
12.13.1 Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) 369
12.13.2 Standard Methods 370
12.14 Traceability 371
12.15 Proficiency Testing 372
12.16 Accreditation 372
12.16.1 Accreditation and QA 372
12.17 Questions 373
12.18 About the Author 375
References 375
Chapter 13: Forensic Document Examination 377
13.1 Introduction 377
13.2 Handwriting and Hand Printing 378
13.3 Natural Variation 380
13.4 Basis of Identification 382
13.5 Exemplar Writing 383
13.6 Limitation of Copies 384
13.7 Ink and Papers 387
13.8 Computer Printers 387
13.9 Photocopiers 388
13.10 Summary 388
13.11 Questions 389
13.12 About the Author 390
References 390
Chapter 14: Toxicology in the Forensic Lab 392
14.1 Introduction 392
14.2 Interpretation of Results 394
14.3 Instrumentation 396
14.3.1 Separation Technology 396
14.3.2 Detectors 397
14.4 Analytical Procedures 398
14.4.1 Screening Tests 399
14.5 Antemortem Toxicology 399
14.5.1 Driving Under the Influence (DUI) 400
14.5.2 Driving Under the Influence of Drugs (DUID) 401
14.5.3 Non-driving Situations 401
14.5.4 Drug-Facilitated Sexual Assault 402
14.5.5 Other Antemortem Situations 402
14.6 Interpretation of Results 403
14.7 Postmortem Toxicology 403
14.7.1 Example Cases, Postmortem 404
14.7.1.1 Case 1 404
14.7.1.2 Case 2 404
14.7.1.3 Case 3 404
14.7.1.4 Case 4 405
14.8 Real Examples from the Case Files 405
14.8.1 Case 5 406
14.8.2 Case 6 406
14.9 Conclusion 407
14.10 Questions 407
14.11 About the Author 408
References 409
Chapter 15: Trace Evidence 410
15.1 General Considerations 410
15.2 Gunshot Residue 412
15.2.1 Bulk Analysis 413
15.2.2 Particle Analysis 413
15.2.3 Interpretation 415
15.2.4 Statistical Evaluation of GSR Data 415
15.3 Hairs 417
15.3.1 DNA Screening 417
15.4 Fibers and Textiles 417
15.4.1 Physical Properties 417
15.5 Paint 418
15.6 Comparison Analysis 419
15.7 General Unknowns 420
15.8 Common Tools for a Trace Examiner 421
15.9 Questions 422
15.10 About the Author 423
References 423
Chapter 16: LIMS: Laboratory Information Management Systems 424
16.1 Introduction 425
16.2 What is a LIMS? 425
16.2.1 Data Storage 426
16.2.2 Software Application 426
16.2.2.1 Business Logic 426
16.2.2.2 User Interface 427
16.2.3 Categories of LIMS and How to Choose One 427
16.2.3.1 Commercial Off-The-Shelf 427
16.2.3.2 Custom Development LIMS 428
16.2.3.3 In-House Development LIMS 429
16.2.3.4 Which LIMS is Right for You? 429
16.3 Case Management 430
16.3.1 A Place for Everything 430
16.3.2 Case Summary Information 431
16.3.2.1 Offenses 431
16.3.2.2 Individuals 431
16.3.2.3 Evidence 431
16.3.2.4 Requests for Analysis 431
16.3.2.5 Case Documents 431
16.4 Workload Management 432
16.4.1 The Multi-Disciplinary Forensic Lab 432
16.4.1.1 The Request for Analysis Lifecycle 432
16.4.1.2 Managing the Examination Process Across Disciplines 432
16.4.1.3 Request Entry 433
16.4.1.4 Request Assignment 434
16.4.1.5 Analysis 434
16.4.1.6 Workflow and Result Types 435
16.4.1.7 Supporting Variability in Examination and Result Types 435
Analytical Modules 435
Customizable Service Definitions 436
16.4.1.8 Batch Processing vs. Single Analysis 436
16.4.1.9 Instrument Interfaces 436
16.4.1.10 Report Drafting 437
16.4.1.11 Technical and Administrative Reviews 438
16.4.1.12 Report Delivery 438
16.5 Evidence Management 439
16.5.1 The Evidence Lifecycle 439
16.5.2 What is Chain of Custody to a Computer? 440
16.5.3 Recording Evidence Transfers 440
16.5.3.1 Barcodes and Radio Frequency Identification 441
16.5.4 Managing Evidence Inventories 442
16.5.4.1 The Inventory Process 442
16.5.4.2 Inflow 442
16.5.4.3 Storage 443
16.5.4.4 Location Audits, Evidence Reconciliations 443
16.5.4.5 Outflow 443
16.5.4.6 Evidence Hierarchies 444
16.5.4.7 Evidence Packaging and Containers 444
16.5.5 Evidence Genealogy 445
16.6 Document Management 445
16.6.1 Case Documentation 446
16.6.2 Quality Management Documentation 447
16.7 Queries and Reports 447
16.7.1 Ad Hoc Queries 448
16.7.2 Management Reports 448
16.7.3 Caseload Statistics 448
16.8 System Management 449
16.8.1 System Administration 449
16.8.2 Database Administration 450
16.9 Systems Integration 450
16.10 Questions 451
16.11 About the Author 452
Chapter 17: Forensic Entomology 453
17.1 Introduction 454
17.2 Decomposition 456
17.2.1 Fresh Stage 457
17.2.2 Bloated Stage 457
17.2.3 Decay Stage 458
17.2.4 Postdecay Stage 458
17.2.5 Skeletal Stage 458
17.3 Basis for Use of Insects 459
17.3.1 Necrophagous Species 459
17.3.2 Parasites and Predators 459
17.3.3 Omnivorous Species 459
17.3.4 Adventive Species 460
17.3.5 Accidental Species 460
17.4 Collection of Entomological Evidence 460
17.4.1 Equipment Needed 461
17.4.2 Collection Procedures 461
17.5 Applications of Entomological Evidence 463
17.5.1 Estimation of the Postmortem Interval 464
17.5.2 Postmortem Movement of the Body 470
17.5.3 Assessment of Wounds 471
17.5.4 Crime Scene/Habitat Characterization 471
17.5.5 Alternate Specimens for Toxicology 473
17.5.6 DNA Applications 474
17.5.7 Abuse/Neglect of Children and the Elderly 474
17.6 Educational Requirements and Certification 477
17.7 Appendix: Protocols for Collection of Entomological Specimens 478
17.8 Equipment Needed 478
17.9 Collection Procedures 478
17.10 Labeling 481
17.11 Additional Information 481
17.12 Questions 482
17.13 About the Author 483
References 483
Chapter 18: Forensic Facility Plan and Design Guidelines 485
18.1 Introduction 486
18.2 Can’t Sleep 486
18.3 To Renovate or Not 487
18.3.1 Exterior Envelope 487
18.3.2 Interior Quality of Life 488
18.3.3 Infrastructure 488
18.3.4 Non-Assigned Space or Building Core 488
18.4 Developing a Case for a New Facility 489
18.4.1 Process Mapping to Help Build Your Case 490
18.4.2 Level of Detail 490
18.4.2.1 Time Analysis 490
18.4.2.2 Resource Analysis 491
18.4.2.3 Swim Lanes 493
18.4.2.4 Occurrence Rate 493
18.4.2.5 Activity Type 493
18.4.3 Approach to Generating a Process Map 494
18.5 Forensic Laboratory Planning 494
18.6 Engineering Basis of Design 496
18.6.1 Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning 496
18.6.1.1 Introduction 496
18.6.1.2 A Key Challenge 497
18.6.1.3 Starting Precept 497
18.6.1.4 The Basis of Design 497
18.6.1.5 Integrating the HVAC System and the Architectural Planning 497
18.6.1.6 Anticipating Change 498
18.6.1.7 Containing Hazards 498
18.6.1.8 Maintaining a Good Indoor Environment 498
18.6.1.9 Keeping it Working 499
18.6.1.10 Saving Energy 500
18.6.1.11 Making Sure It’s Right 500
18.6.2 Fire Prevention and Protection for Forensic Labs 501
18.6.2.1 The Challenge 501
18.6.2.2 Spaces 501
Controlled Substances 501
Latent Prints 501
Instrument Rooms 502
Evidence and Property Storage Areas 502
Vehicle Exam Bays 502
Firearms 502
18.6.2.3 Systems 502
Wet Sprinkler System 502
Interlocked Dry Pipe System 503
Chemical or Gaseous Systems 503
Flammable Storage Cabinets 503
Ventilation Systems 504
Fire Extinguishers 504
18.6.3 Laboratory Plumbing and Piped Utilities 504
18.6.3.1 The Challenge 504
18.6.3.2 Water Supply 504
18.6.3.3 Drainage 505
18.6.3.4 Compressed Air 505
18.6.3.5 Vacuum 505
18.6.3.6 Natural Gas 505
18.6.3.7 Compressed Gasses 505
18.6.4 Lighting 506
18.6.5 Electrical Power 506
18.6.6 Information Systems and Communications 506
18.6.7 Security and Access Control 507
18.7 Building Management Systems 507
18.8 ISO-17025 and the Effect on Forensic Facility Design 508
18.9 Sustainable “Green” Forensic Laboratory Design 509
18.10 Conclusion 512
18.11 Questions 513
18.12 About the Authors 513
Chapter 19: Introduction to Forensic Anthropology 515
19.1 History of Forensic Anthropology 515
19.2 Scene Processing 516
19.2.1 Scattered Remains 517
19.2.2 Buried Remains 518
19.2.3 Burned Remains 521
19.3 Postmortem Interval 521
19.4 Biological Profile 524
19.4.1 Sex 524
19.4.2 Age 526
19.4.3 Ancestry 528
19.4.4 Stature 530
19.4.5 Anomalies and Pathologies 531
19.5 Trauma Analysis 533
19.5.1 Antemortem Trauma 533
19.5.2 Postmortem Trauma 535
19.5.3 Perimortem Trauma 535
19.6 Identification 539
19.7 Conclusion 540
19.8 Questions 541
19.9 About the Authors 541
References 542
Chapter 20: Introduction to Forensic Engineering and Accident Reconstruction 544
20.1 Introduction 545
20.2 Documentation of an Accident Scene 545
20.2.1 Scene Examination 545
20.2.2 Vehicle Examination 549
20.2.3 Crush Damage 549
20.2.4 Light Bulb Examination 550
20.2.5 Seat Belt Examinations 551
20.2.6 Occupant Kinematics 554
20.3 Accident Reconstruction 555
20.3.1 Definitions 555
20.3.2 Laws of Motion 556
20.3.3 Reconstruction Analysis 556
20.3.3.1 Calculation Procedure 557
20.3.4 Change in Velocity 559
20.3.5 Vehicle: Pedestrian Accidents 560
20.4 Product Liability 561
20.5 Concluding Remarks 562
20.6 Appendix 562
20.7 Abbreviations 564
20.8 Questions 564
20.9 About the Authors 565
References 565
Chapter 21: Wildlife Forensic Science 567
21.1 Introduction 567
21.2 The Inherent Problems of Wildlife Forensic Science 569
21.2.1 The Lack of Species-Specific Definitions for Wildlife Parts and Products 569
21.2.2 Legal vs. Illegal Kills 570
21.3 Wildlife Forensic Protocols 571
21.3.1 Morphology 572
21.3.2 Molecular Biology (Genetics) 572
21.3.2.1 Family/Genus/Species ID 573
21.3.2.2 Gender Identification 573
21.3.2.3 Individualization of Blood and Tissue 574
21.3.3 Criminalistics 574
21.3.3.1 Trace Evidence 575
21.3.3.2 Firearms 575
21.3.3.3 Other Weapons 575
21.3.3.4 Impression Marks 576
21.3.3.5 Latent Prints 576
21.3.3.6 Questioned Documents 577
21.4 Analytical Chemistry 577
21.4.1 Toxicology Data 578
21.4.2 Biomarker Data 578
21.4.3 Hemoglobin Structural Data 579
21.4.4 Stable Isotope Data 579
21.5 Pathology 580
21.6 Digital Evidence 581
21.7 Questions 581
21.8 About the Author 581
Suggested Reading 582
Appendices 584
Appendix A 585
Appendix B 586
Appendix C 587
Index 588