Reforesting Landscapes (eBook)

Nagendra_FM.pdf 1
Anchor 1 2
Anchor 2 2
Anchor 3 2
Anchor 4 2
Anchor 5 2
Anchor 6 5
Nagendra_Ch01.pdf 8
Chapter 1 8
Reforestation: Challenges and Themes in Reforestation Research 8
1.1 Introduction 9
1.2 Description of the Book 10
1.3 Challenges for Reforestation Research 11
1.3.1 Definitions of Reforestation 12
1.3.2 Interdisciplinarity 12
1.3.3 Multiplicity of Spatial and Temporal Scales 15
1.3.4 New Methodological Approaches 16
1.3.5 Reforestation as a Process 17
1.3.6 Global Focus 17
1.3.7 Urbanization 18
1.3.8 Forest Transition Theory 18
1.3.9 Cultural and Ecosystem Processes and Services 19
1.3.10 Future Expansion of Plantations 20
1.4 Concluding Remarks 20
Nagendra_Ch02.pdf 22
Chapter 2 22
The Bigger Picture – Tropical Forest Change in Context, Concept and Practice 22
2.1 Introduction 22
2.2 Methodology 24
2.2.1 Discursive Space 24
2.2.2 Institutional Space 26
2.3 Concepts and Practices of Two Scientific Disciplines 26
2.3.1 Forest Science Concepts and Practices 26
2.3.2 Land Change Science Concepts and Practices 27
2.3.2.1 The Forest Transition Model 28
2.3.2.2 An Alternative Forest Transition Model 28
2.3.2.3 Incorporating Uncertainty into the Forest Transition Model 31
2.3.2.4 Data Needs in Land Change Science 31
2.4 Contextual Conceptualizations of Forest Change 31
2.4.1 Differences Between Scales 31
2.4.2 Interactions Between Scales 32
2.5 Forest Monitoring Practices 34
2.5.1 State Forestry Institutions 34
2.5.2 International Forestry Institutions 35
2.5.3 Land Change Science and Global Change Science Institutions 36
2.6 Analysing Evidence for Forestation in Forest Change Narratives 36
2.6.1 Trends in Pan-Tropical Forest Plantations Area 36
2.6.2 Trends in Forest Area in Eight Tropical Countries 38
2.6.2.1 A Summary of Case Study Findings 38
2.6.2.2 Narratives Constructed in FAO Forest Resource Assessments 39
2.6.2.3 Constructing Alternative Narratives Using Survey Reports in FRAs 41
2.6.2.4 Constructing Contextual Narratives Using Survey Evidence in FRA Country Reports 43
2.7 Conclusions 46
References 48
Nagendra_Ch03.pdf 51
Chapter 3 51
Three Paths to Forest Expansion: A Comparative Historical Analysis 51
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 Expansion Through Spontaneous Regeneration 54
3.3 Expansion Through Tree Plantations 57
3.4 Expansion Through Household Agroforests 59
3.5 Conclusion: Historical Conditions and Policies for Encouraging Forest Expansion 60
References 61
Nagendra_Ch04.pdf 64
Chapter 4 64
A Tri-Partite Framework of Forest Dynamics: Hierarchy, Panarchy, and Heterarchy in the Study of Secondary Growth 64
4.1 Introduction 65
4.2 A Tri-Partite Framework of Forest Dynamics 66
4.2.1 Hierarchy Theory 67
4.2.2 Adaptive Cycles and Panarchy 72
4.2.3 Heterarchy 79
4.3 Conclusions 83
References 87
Nagendra_Ch05.pdf 90
Chapter 5 90
Forest Cover Dynamics and Forest Transitions in Mexico and Central America: Towards a “Great Restoration”? 90
5.1 Introduction 90
5.2 Forest Change Pathways 92
5.3 The Forests of Mexico and Central America and the History of Deforestation 97
5.4 Country-Level Dynamics 100
5.4.1 Mexico 100
5.4.1.1 The Continued Deforestation Pathway 100
5.4.1.2 The Forest Recovery, Maintenance, and Protection Pathway 101
5.4.2 Belize 103
5.4.3 Guatemala 104
5.4.3.1 The Continued Deforestation Pathway 104
5.4.3.2 The Forest Recovery, Maintenance and Protection Pathway 105
5.4.4 Honduras 107
5.4.4.1 The Continued Deforestation Pathway 107
5.4.4.2 The Forest Recovery, Maintenance, and Protection Pathway 107
5.4.5 El Salvador 109
5.4.5.1 The Continued Deforestation Pathway 109
5.4.5.2 The Forest Recovery, Maintenance and Protection Pathway 109
5.4.6 Nicaragua 110
5.4.6.1 The Continued Deforestation Pathway 110
5.4.6.2 The Forest Recovery, Maintenance, and Protection Pathway 111
5.4.7 Costa Rica 112
5.4.7.1 The Continued Deforestation Pathway 112
5.4.7.2 The Forest Recovery, Maintenance, and Protection Pathway 112
5.4.8 Panama 114
5.4.8.1 The Continued Deforestation Pathway 114
5.4.8.2 The Forest Recovery, Maintenance, and Protection Pathway 114
5.5 Conclusions 115
References 121
Nagendra_Ch06.pdf 126
Chapter 6 126
Reforestation in Central and Eastern Europe After the Breakdown of Socialism 126
6.1 Overview 127
6.1.1 Introduction 127
6.1.2 Historic Forest Cover Trends 127
6.1.3 Forest Cover Trends in the Post-socialist Period 129
6.1.4 National Level Forest Resource Statistics 132
6.2 Case Studies 133
6.2.1 Case Study I: Reforestation and Forest Cover Change in Latvia’s Gauja National Park 133
6.2.1.1 Study Site and National Historical Context 133
6.2.1.2 Post-socialist Forest Change Patterns and Processes 134
6.2.2 Case Study II: Reforestation Potential and Forest Cover Change in Arges County, Romania 136
6.2.2.1 Study Site and National Historical Context 136
6.2.2.2 Post-socialist Forest Change Patterns and Processes 137
6.2.3 Case Study III: Reforestation and Forest Cover Change in Southeast Albania 139
6.2.3.1 Study Site and National Historical Context 139
6.2.3.2 Post-socialist Forest Change Patterns and Processes 141
6.3 Discussion 143
6.3.1 Drivers of Reforestation in Post-socialist Eastern Europe 143
6.3.2 Outlook: Future Reforestation in the Region 145
6.4 Conclusions 147
References 148
Nagendra_Ch07.pdf 153
Chapter 7 153
Reforestation and Regrowth in the Human Dominated Landscapes of South Asia 153
7.1 Introduction 154
7.2 Meta-Analysis 157
7.2.1 Methods 157
7.2.2 Results 158
7.3 Detailed Case Studies 165
7.3.1 Methods 165
7.3.2 Landscape 1 – Chitwan District, Nepal Terai Plains 167
7.3.3 Landscape 2 – Kabrepalanchowk District, Nepal Middle Hills 169
7.3.4 Landscape 3 – Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary, Eastern Indian Foothills 171
7.3.5 Landscape 4 – Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve, Central Indian Plains 173
7.4 Conclusions 174
References 176
Nagendra_Ch08.pdf 179
Chapter 8 179
Threats to the Forest Transition in the Midwest United States 179
8.1 Introduction 180
8.2 Forest Transitions 181
8.3 Historical Trajectories of Land-Cover Change in the United States 182
8.3.1 Trajectories of Land-Cover Change: Indiana, Midwest United States 186
8.3.1.1 Timber Production and the Forestry Industry 191
8.3.1.2 Public Landholdings and Forest Management 192
8.3.1.3 Legislation and Forest Conservation Efforts 193
8.3.2 Trajectories of Land-Cover Change in South-Central Indiana 193
8.4 Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats: Future Reforestation Potential in Indiana 198
8.4.1 Strengths (Internal) of Future Reforestation Trajectories 198
8.4.2 Weaknesses (Internal) of Future Reforestation Trajectories 199
8.4.3 Opportunities (External) for Future Reforestation 200
8.4.4 Threats (External) to Future Reforestation 201
8.5 Conclusion 203
References 204
Nagendra_Ch09.pdf 208
Chapter 9 208
Importance of Input Classification to Graph Automata Simulations of Forest Cover Change in the Peruvian Amazon 208
9.1 Introduction 209
9.2 Conceptual Framework 210
9.3 Discussion of Methods 211
9.3.1 Cellular Automata 211
9.3.2 Graph Automata 212
9.4 Case Study 213
9.4.1 Study Area 213
9.4.2 Data 213
9.4.3 Methods 214
9.4.4 Results 217
9.5 Discussion 222
9.5.1 Methodological Implications 222
9.5.2 Methodological Implications 225
References 226
Nagendra_Ch10.pdf 229
Chapter 10 229
Forest Expansion in Northwest Costa Rica: Conjuncture of the Global Market, Land-Use Intensification, and Forest Protection 229
10.1 Introduction 229
10.2 Tempisque Basin: Geographical and Historical Setting 231
10.3 Forces of Landscape Change 233
10.4 Methods 236
10.4.1 Land-Cover Classification and Change Detection 236
10.4.2 Trajectory Analysis 238
10.4.3 Dominant Explanatory Trajectories 238
10.4.4 Landscape Setting for Trajectories 239
10.5 Results 239
10.5.1 Land Cover Area: Net Trends 239
10.5.2 Explanatory Trajectories 241
10.5.3 Protected and Non-protected Landscape Comparisons 244
10.5.4 Landscape Setting for Dominant Trajectories 244
10.6 Discussion 246
References 252
Nagendra_Ch11.pdf 255
Chapter 11 255
Forest Cover Changes and Their Drivers in the Polish Carpathian Mountains Since 1800 255
11.1 Introduction 255
11.2 The Polish Carpathians 256
11.3 From the Early Nineteenth Century to the 1930s: Towards Stabilisation of Forest Cover 258
11.3.1 Drivers 258
11.3.2 Case Study Evidence and Change Estimates 259
11.4 The Communist Period, 1945–1989 260
11.4.1 Drivers 261
11.4.2 Case Study Evidence and Change Estimates 262
11.5 Forest Cover Change After 1989 266
11.5.1 Drivers 266
11.5.2 Forest Cover at the Beginning of the Twenty First Century, Current Change Estimates and Future Trends 268
11.6 Concluding Remarks 271
References 271
Nagendra_Ch12.pdf 276
Chapter 12 276
Parks as a Mechanism to Maintain and Facilitate Recovery of Forest Cover: Examining Reforestation, Forest Maintenance and Prod 276
12.1 Introduction 277
12.1.1 Case Study: Kibale National Park, Uganda 279
12.1.2 Monitoring Land Cover Change in and Around a Forest Park 282
12.2 Methods 283
12.2.1 Discrete Data Analysis – Land Cover Classification and Change Detection 283
12.2.2 Continuous Data Analysis 284
12.3 Results 284
12.3.1 Land Cover Classification and Change Detection 284
12.3.2 Continuous Data Analysis 286
12.3.2.1 NDVI Description 286
12.3.2.2 NDVI Change Trajectories 287
12.3.3 Spatial Patterns of Land Cover Change 288
12.4 Discussion 289
12.4.1 Forest Change in and Around Kibale and Implications of Those Changes 289
12.4.2 Parks as Mechanisms for Forest Recovery and Maintenance 291
12.4.3 Continuous Data Analysis Using NDVI in the Kibale Landscape 292
12.5 Conclusion 293
References 295
Nagendra_Ch13.pdf 298
Chapter 13 298
Spontaneous Regeneration of Tropical Dry Forest in Madagascar: The Social–Ecological Dimension 298
13.1 Introduction 299
13.2 Study Area and Methodology 300
13.2.1 Analyses of Landsat Images 300
13.2.2 Ground-Truthing of Forest Classification 301
13.2.3 Analyses of Trends in Aridity 303
13.2.4 Social Surveys 303
13.3 Ecological and Social Dimensions of Forest Cover Change 304
13.3.1 The Ecological Dimension 304
13.3.2 The Social Dimension 307
13.3.3 The Social–Ecological Dimension 309
References 311
Nagendra_Ch14.pdf 315
Chapter 14 315
Forest Transition in Vietnam and Bhutan: Causes and Environmental Impacts 315
14.1 Introduction 315
14.2 Methods 316
14.2.1 Study Areas 316
14.2.1.1 Vietnam 316
14.2.1.2 Bhutan 318
14.2.2 Data and Methods 318
14.2.2.1 Vietnam 318
14.2.2.2 Bhutan 319
14.3 Results 319
14.3.1 The Pattern of Forest Transition in Vietnam 319
14.3.2 The Causes of Deforestation in Vietnam 323
14.3.3 The Forest Transition Pathways in Vietnam 324
14.3.3.1 Economic Reforms and Agricultural Development 324
14.3.3.2 Policy Responses to Forest Scarcity 326
14.3.3.3 Smallholder Agricultural Intensification 328
14.3.4 Environmental Impacts of the Forest Transition in Vietnam 329
14.3.4.1 Forest Density and Carbon Stocks 329
14.3.4.2 Habitat Fragmentation and Biodiversity 330
14.3.5 Forest Transition in Bhutan 331
14.4 Discussion and Conclusion 333
14.4.1 Interactions Between Pathways and Local Diversity 333
14.4.2 Social and Economic Issues in the Forest Transition 334
14.4.3 Conclusion 335
References 336
Nagendra_Ch15.pdf 340
Chapter 15 340
Forest Cover in China from 1949 to 2006 340
15.1 Introduction 340
15.2 The Natural Environment 342
15.3 Changes in Forest Cover from 1949 to 2006 344
15.3.1 Characteristic Development Stages 344
15.3.2 The 1998 Record Flooding and Forest Restoration Efforts 348
15.3.3 Economic Growth and Forest Cover 349
15.4 Discussion 352
15.5 Conclusions 353
References 354
Nagendra_Ch16.pdf 356
Chapter 16 356
Reforestation: Conclusions and Implications 356
16.1 Major Research Findings from Studies Presented in This Book 357
16.2 Reforesting Landscapes – Drivers, Processes and Frameworks for Study 357
16.2.1 Dominant Drivers of Reforestation 357
16.2.2 Typologies of Forest Change 361
16.2.3 Tools for Reforestation Studies 363
16.3 Continued and Future Challenges for Reforestation Research 363
16.3.1 Definitions of Reforestation 363
16.3.2 Need Long-Term Assessments of Change 364
16.3.3 Drivers of Future Change 364
16.4 Final Thoughts 365
References 366
Nagendra_Index.pdf 367