The Evolution of Exudativory in Primates (eBook)

Foreword 7
Acknowledgments 15
Contents 17
Contributors 19
Chapter 1: Introduction: Advances and Remaining Sticky Issues in the Understandingof Exudativory in Primates 23
Introduction 23
Exudates as a Primate Dietary Component 26
Updates on Primate Exudativores 26
Exudates as Fallback Foods and Primate Feeding Adaptations 28
Factors Influencing Selectivity in Exudate-Feeding 30
Digestive Challenges and Nutrients in Gum 31
Digestible Energy form of Trunk Gum vs. Pod Gum vs. Honeydew 32
Measuring Distribution and Seasonality of Availability and Its Consumption 33
Anatomical Adaptations to Exudativory 34
Cranial and Dental Anatomy: The Problem of “Gouge” vs. “Scrape” 34
Soft Tissues: Guts, Tongues, and Pelage 37
Locomotion and Limbs 39
Diet and Captive Husbandry of Exudativores 39
Concluding Remarks 40
References 41
Chapter 2: Nutritional and Digestive Challenges to Being a Gum-Feeding Primate 46
Introduction 47
Exudates as Food 48
Fore-Gut and Hind-Gut Digestion 52
Body Size 53
Protein 53
Calcium 55
Callitrichid Digestive Function 56
Marmoset Digestive Tracts 61
Summary 62
References 63
Chapter 3: Exudativory in Primates: Interspecific Patterns 66
Introduction 66
Literature Analysis 69
Results 69
Prevalence of Gummivory 69
Seasonality of Consumption 70
Species Consumed 70
Patterns of Gummivory Within the Primates 95
Discussion 95
Prevalence of Gummivory 95
Seasonality of Consumption 96
Pod Gums 96
Species Consumed 98
Degrees of Gummivory Within the Callitrichidae 98
Patterns of Gummivory Within the Primates 99
Conclusion 100
References 101
Chapter 4: The Ecology of Exudate Production and Exudate Feeding in Saguinus and Callimico 109
Introduction 110
Methods 112
Behavioral Data 112
Exudate Production 113
Results 114
Exudate Feeding in Saguinus: General Results 114
Exudate Feeding in Callimico: General Results 115
Exudate Production: Daily Exudate Flow 116
Exudate Production: Monthly Exudate Flow 120
Exudates as a Renewable Resource 122
Discussion 123
References 126
Chapter 5: Influences on Gum Feeding in Primates 129
Introduction 129
Methods 131
Data Analysis 132
Results 132
Tamarin Exudate Feeding 132
Discussion 133
Overlap in Gums Eaten Between Species and Groups 134
Seasonal Patterns of Gummivory 135
Patterns of Gummivory Across the Day 136
Summary 138
References 138
Chapter 6: Gummivory in Cheirogaleids: Primitive Retention or Adaptation to Hypervariable Environments? 142
Introduction 142
Methods 144
Adaptations to Gummivory 144
The Diet of M. griseorufus 144
Energy Content of Gums and Fruits in Southern and Western Madagascar 145
Spatio-Temporal Distribution of Food and Hypervariability 146
Data Analyses 146
Results 147
Diverse Forms of Adaptation to Gummivory 147
Is M. griseorufus a Gum-Specialist? 147
Fruit and Gum Profitability 149
Unpredictability of Rainfall: The Best Ecological Predictor for Gummivory 153
Conclusion 157
References 158
Chapter 7: Seasonality in Gum and Honeydew Feeding in Gray Mouse Lemurs 160
Introduction 161
Material and Methods 163
Study Site and Climate Conditions 163
Focal Observation and Analysis 164
Data and Statistical Analysis 164
Results 165
Activity Budget During the Dry and Rainy Season 165
Food Items Consumed 165
Usage of Gum and Honeydew Sites 166
Discussion 168
References 171
Chapter 8: Comparative Ecology of Exudate Feeding by Lorises (Nycticebus, Loris) and Pottos (Perodicticus, Arctocebus) 173
Introduction 174
Methods 176
Results 176
Review of Exudativory in Wild Lorises and Pottos 176
Captive Sumatran Study 178
Discussion 181
References 184
Chapter 9: Exudativory and Primate Skull Form 187
Introduction and Background 188
Force-Resisting Structures 189
Tradeoffs in Jaw-Opening and Force-Generating Structures 191
Anterior Dentition 193
Summary and Conclusions 199
References 200
Chapter 10: A Comparative Analysis of the Articular Cartilage in the Temporomandibular Joint of Gouging and Nongouging New World Monkeys 204
Introduction 204
The Marmoset Masticatory Apparatus and Gouging at Wide Jaw Gapes 205
Form and Function of Temporomandibular Joint Articular Cartilage and Gouging 205
Hypothesis and Predictions 207
Prediction One 207
Prediction Two 208
Prediction Three 208
Materials and Methods 208
Samples 208
Histology 209
Histomorphometric Measurements of Temporomandibular Joint Cartilage 209
Cartilage Arc Lengths 209
Cartilage Area 209
Cartilage Depth 211
Proteoglycan Density 211
Analysis 212
Results 212
Histomorphology of the TMJ and Cartilage Arc Length 212
Area 213
Depth 216
Proteoglycan Density (Metachromasia) 218
Discussion 218
The Evolutionary Morphology of TMJ Articular Cartilage in Primates 220
Unraveling the Complexity of Articular Cartilage Function 221
Limitations and Future Directions 223
Conclusions 224
References 224
Chapter 11: Searching for Dental Signals of Exudativory in Galagos 228
Galago Diets 231
Prediction 1: The Toothcomb 234
Prediction 2: Non-toothcomb Dentition 234
Materials and Methods 235
Results 237
The Toothcomb 237
Maxillary Dentition 238
Non-toothcomb Mandibular Dentition 242
Discussion 244
Implications for Exudativory Signals in the Fossil Record 246
References 247
Chapter 12: A Guide to Galago Diversity: Getting a Grip on How Best to Chew Gum 251
Introduction 251
Galago Diversity 251
Morphological Aspects of Niche Differentiation 252
Adaptations to Exudate Exploitation 252
Methods 252
Toothscraper Analysis 253
Hand and Foot Morphology 254
Results 254
Toothscraper Morphology 254
Hand Pad Morphology 256
Qualitative Analysis of Pad Shape 256
Statistical Analyses of Hand Pad Size 258
Variation in Hand Pad Size at the Species Level 258
Variation in Hand Pad Size at the Genus Level 258
Foot Pad Morphology 258
Comparative Analysis of Foot Pad Shape 258
Statistical Analyses of Foot Pad Size 261
Variation in Foot Pad Size at the Species Level 262
Variation in Foot Pad Size at the Genus Level 262
Nail Shape 266
Discussion 267
Dental Adaptations to Exudate Eating 267
Implications for the Evolution of the Toothscraper 267
Hand and Foot Pad Morphology 268
Functional Significance of Pad Morphology 268
Nail Shape and the Exploitation of Exudates 269
Hand and Foot Morphology and Niche Differentiation 269
References 270
Chapter 13: Tongue Morphology in Infant and Adult Bushbabies (Otolemur spp.) 272
Introduction 272
Methods 274
Light Microscopy 274
Scanning Electron Microscopy 275
Quantification of Fungiform Papillae in Adult Otolemur 275
Results 276
Microscopic Characteristics of the Tongue in Otolemur 276
Quantitative Findings 277
Discussion 278
Comparative Morphology of Tongue Papillae in Mammals 278
Taste Buds and Pores 282
Summary and Conclusions 283
References 284
Chapter 14: Adaptive Profile Versus Adaptive Specialization: Fossils and Gummivory in Early Primate Evolution 287
Introduction 288
Objectives, Principles, and Methods 289
Adaptational Analysis: Gummivory – Adaptive Profile Versus Adaptive Specialization 293
The Gum-Gouging Model: Marmoset Behavior and Functional Morphology 295
Testing Hypotheses 298
Plesiadapiforms and the Sugar Glider Analogy 298
Strepsirrhines: Toothcombs and Their Origins 301
Conclusions 305
References 307
Index 310