Environmental Communication. Second Edition (eBook)

Preface 5
How We Organized This Book 7
Reference 8
Acknowledgments 9
Contents 10
Bio Blurbs 20
Chapter 1: Understanding the World Around Us 24
1.1 Introduction 24
1.2 Axioms for Environmental Communications 24
1.3 A Brief History of Environmental Communication 26
1.3.1 Nature Writing 28
1.3.2 Outdoor Recreation and Travel Writing 28
1.3.3 Science Writing 28
1.3.4 Public Affairs Reporting 29
1.3.5 Persuasion 29
1.4 The Growth of Environmental Communication 30
1.4.1 1969–1974 33
1.4.2 1989–1994 34
1.4.3 2002 Onward 34
1.5 Definitions of ‘Environmental Communication’ 34
1.6 Models of Environmental Communication 36
1.6.1 Communicating Environmental Information Model 36
1.6.2 Ecological Model of the Communication Process 39
1.7 A Sense of Place 40
1.8 What Is Sustainability? 41
1.9 Education for Sustainable Development 43
1.9.1 Case Studies: Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) 44
References and Further Reading 45
Chapter 2: Communicating About the Environment 47
2.1 Introduction 47
2.2 Communication Modeling and Theory 48
2.2.1 Communication Perspectives 50
2.2.2 Message Elaboration 50
2.3 What Are the Differences and Similarities Among Environmental Communication, Environmental Education and Environmental Interpretation? 51
2.4 Principles of Adult/Community Education 53
2.5 Implications for the Professional 54
2.5.1 Case Study: Environmental Education. Project WILD 55
2.5.2 Case Study: Environmental Interpretation. 56
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park 56
2.5.3 Case Study: Environmental Communication 57
An Inconvenient Truth 57
References and Further Reading 57
Chapter 3: Developing Your Environmental Literacy 60
3.1 Introduction 60
3.2 Literacy 61
3.3 Numeracy 61
3.4 Science Literacy 62
3.5 Environmental Literacy 64
3.5.1 Degrees of Environmental Literacy 64
3.5.2 Measuring Environmental Literacy 65
3.6 Ecological Literacy 67
3.6.1 Nature-Deficit Disorder 68
3.6.2 No Child Left Inside 68
3.7 How Science Information Becomes Reliable 69
3.7.1 Frontier Science 71
3.7.2 Primary Literature 71
3.7.3 Secondary Literature 71
3.7.4 Textbook Science 72
3.7.5 The Internet and the Knowledge Filter 72
3.8 Thinking Critically About Scientific Information 73
3.8.1 Does Their Argument Make Sense? 73
3.8.2 Who Is the Source of the Information? 74
3.8.3 Are the ‘Facts’ Placed in a Context of Accepted Knowledge? 74
3.8.4 How Was the Information Obtained? 74
3.8.5 What Kind of Study Was Reported? 75
3.8.6 Were Measurements and Statistics Used Properly? 75
3.9 The Art of Argumentation 76
3.10 Case Study: Environmental Literacy. 79
Last Child in the Woods 79
References and Further Reading 80
Chapter 4: Investigating Environmental Issues 82
4.1 Introduction 82
4.2 Components of Issue Analysis 83
4.3 How Issues Arise 84
4.4 Dissecting Issues 85
4.5 Value Descriptors 87
4.6 Global vs. Regional vs. Local Issues 88
4.7 Framing and Framing Anew 89
4.8 Case Study: Environmental Issue Analysis. 90
Ohio Beverage Container Deposit Legislation 90
References and Further Reading 91
Chapter 5: Planning Environmental Communications 93
5.1 Introduction 93
5.2 A Process for Planning Campaigns 93
5.2.1 Problem Statement 94
5.2.2 Goals 95
5.2.3 Audience Analysis 95
5.2.4 Objectives 95
5.2.5 Message Development/Media Options/Audience Suitability 96
5.2.6 Media Choice and Design 97
5.2.7 Timeline 97
5.2.8 Front-End Evaluation 97
5.2.9 Formative Evaluation 97
5.2.10 Summative Evaluation 98
5.2.11 Project Budget 98
5.3 An Outline for Writing a Communication Plan 98
5.4 Case Study: Environmental Communication Planning 99
References and Further Reading 100
Chapter 6: Analyzing Your Audience 101
6.1 Introduction 101
6.2 Internals Versus Externals 102
6.3 Population Segmentation 103
6.3.1 Adoptions of New Ideas 103
6.3.2 Support of Pro-environmental Issues 104
6.3.3 Fragmentation, Selectivity and Loyalty 105
6.4 Adopting New Ideas 106
6.4.1 Awareness 107
6.4.2 Interest 107
6.4.3 Evaluation 107
6.4.4 Trial 108
6.4.5 Adoption 108
6.5 Beliefs, Values, Attitudes, Worldviews, and Opinions 108
6.5.1 Belief 109
6.5.2 Value 110
6.5.3 Attitude 111
6.5.4 Worldview 111
6.5.5 Opinion 111
6.5.6 Situational Factors 111
6.6 Memes 112
6.7 Locus of Control 113
6.8 A Model of Citizen Participation 115
6.8.1 Entry Level Variables + Ownership Variables + Empowerment Variables . Environmentally Responsible Behavior 115
6.9 Motivation 116
6.9.1 Motivational Needs Models 117
6.9.2 How to Motivate Adults 118
6.10 Consumerism as a Way to Understand Preferences 119
6.10.1 Business Communication to Assist Consumer Choice 120
6.11 Case Study: Audience Analysis. 121
Environmental Radio Soap Opera for Rural Vietnam 121
References and Further Reading 121
Chapter 7: Evaluating Your Messages’ Effects 124
7.1 Introduction 124
7.2 Purposes of Evaluation 124
7.3 Methods of Evaluating 125
7.3.1 Surveys 125
7.3.2 Participant Observation 127
7.3.3 Interviews 128
7.3.4 Group Consensus 129
7.3.5 Secondary Analysis/Case Study 130
7.3.6 Professional Judgment/Expert Opinion 131
7.4 Quantitative Versus Qualitative Techniques 131
7.5 Types of Evaluation 132
7.5.1 Formative 132
7.5.2 Process 132
7.5.3 Outcome 132
7.5.4 Impact 133
7.6 Factors Influencing Evaluations 133
7.6.1 Cost 133
7.6.2 Expertise 133
7.6.3 Risk of Failure 134
7.6.4 Sample Make-Up/Selection 134
7.6.5 Utility 134
7.6.6 Timeliness 134
7.6.7 Autonomy 135
7.7 Evaluation Plan 135
7.8 Case Study: Evaluation. Global Education Project in Central Asia 136
References and Further Reading 137
Chapter 8: Characterizing the Mass Media 139
8.1 Introduction 139
8.2 Convergence 139
8.3 Characteristics of Mass Media 141
8.3.1 Purpose 141
8.3.2 Providing Information 142
8.3.3 Persuasion 143
8.3.4 Entertainment 143
8.3.5 Audience Focus and Depth 144
8.3.6 Delivery Channel 145
8.3.7 Timeliness 146
8.3.8 Cost 147
8.4 Conclusion 148
8.5 Case Study: Converged Media. 148
‘Earth Song’ by Michael Jackson 148
References and Further Reading 149
Chapter 9: Highlighting Useful Media 150
9.1 Introduction 150
9.2 Traditional Media 151
9.2.1 News Releases 151
9.2.2 Letter Writing 152
9.2.3 Abstracts and Executive Summaries 154
9.2.4 Public Service Announcements 154
9.2.5 Information Sheets 156
9.2.6 Science Writing 157
9.2.7 Direct Mail 157
9.2.8 Newsletters 158
9.2.9 Interpretive Talks/Presentations 158
9.2.10 Films 159
9.3 New Media 160
9.3.1 The World Wide Web 160
9.3.2 Email 161
9.3.3 Mobile Device Messaging 162
9.3.4 Blogs 162
9.3.5 Social Networking 163
9.4 Converged Media 163
9.4.1 Reader Responses 164
9.4.2 Podcast Tour Guides 165
9.4.3 Viral Marketing 165
9.4.4 Webinars 166
9.4.5 Streaming Events 167
9.5 Unusual Media for Environmental Communication 168
9.6 Case Study: Useful Media. 168
Plant a Billion Trees (http://www.plantabillion.org/) 168
9.7 Case Study: Useful Media. 169
Motorola Renew and Samsung Reclaim 169
References and Further Reading 169
Chapter 10: Grouping Together Well 172
10.1 Introduction 172
10.2 Why Do Groups Exist? 172
10.3 Community Groups and Their Special Aspects 173
10.3.1 Hegemony 173
10.3.2 Empowerment 174
10.3.3 Revelation 174
10.3.4 Education as Intervention 174
10.3.5 Leadership and Dependence 174
10.3.6 Openness 175
10.4 Team Building Techniques 175
10.4.1 Group Climate 176
10.4.2 Building Relationships 176
10.5 Capacity-Building and Civic Agency 178
10.6 Managing Versus Leading 179
10.7 Some Management Theory Ideas 180
10.7.1 Contingency Theory 180
10.7.2 Chaos Theory 180
10.7.3 Systems Theory 181
10.7.4 Self-Directed Teams 182
10.8 Emotional Intelligence 182
10.8.1 Trust as the Cornerstone of Empathy 183
10.9 Formats for Presenting Information to Groups 184
10.9.1 A Speech, Film or Demonstration 184
10.9.2 Brain-Storming 185
10.9.3 Buzz Sub-Groups or Small Discuss Sub-groups 185
10.9.4 Role Playing 185
10.9.5 Panel Discussion 185
10.9.6 Colloquy, or Talk-Show Format 186
10.9.7 Symposium 186
10.10 Conclusion 186
10.11 Case Study: Environmental Group Formation. 186
Taiwan’s Environmental and Sustainability Non-governmental Organizations 186
Box 10.1 Groupthink 178
References and Further Reading 187
Chapter 11: Differing Ways of Thinking and Doing 189
11.1 Introduction 189
11.2 Personality Types 189
11.2.1 Satir Modes 190
11.2.2 Myers–Briggs Personality Typing 191
11.2.3 Enneagrams of Personality 192
11.3 Learning and Coping Preferences 193
11.3.1 Field Dependent vs. Field Independent 193
11.3.2 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences 193
11.3.3 Learning Styles 196
11.4 Accommodating People with Disabilities 196
11.5 Conclusion 197
11.6 Case Study: Multiple Intelligences and Learning Styles 198
References and Further Reading 198
Chapter 12: Communicating Across Cultures 200
12.1 Introduction 200
12.2 Culture: Macro Versus Micro 202
12.3 Cultural Adaptation Theories 203
12.4 Worldviews 204
12.5 Where Are We Headed? 207
12.6 Empathy or Apathy? 207
12.7 Stereotyping Versus Sociotyping 208
12.8 Sensitivity for People with Disabilities 209
12.9 Cultural Awareness/Sensitivity/Competency 210
12.10 Becoming Culturally Competent 211
12.10.1 The Platinum Rule 212
12.10.2 Why Do We Have Cultural Conflicts? 212
12.11 Conclusion 212
12.12 Case Study: Communicating Across Cultures. 213
Cultural Context at Work 213
References and Further Reading 213
Chapter 13: Speaking to an Audience 215
13.1 Introduction 215
13.2 Structuring the Presentation 215
13.2.1 Interpretive Theming 215
13.2.2 A Presentation’s Introduction 217
13.2.3 A Presentation’s Main Body 217
13.2.4 A Presentation’s Conclusion 218
13.3 Delivering the Presentation 218
13.3.1 Verbal Delivery 218
13.3.1.1 Vocal Qualities 219
13.3.1.2 Mannerisms and Posture 221
13.3.1.3 Influencing Audience Emotions 222
13.4 Overcoming Anxiety About Public Speaking 223
13.5 Case Study: Public Speaking About and for the Environment. 228
Speaking of Earth: Environmental Speeches that Moved the World 228
Box 13.1 Types of Speakers 222
Shrinking Violet 222
Zealous Animator 222
Fire-and-Brimstone Preacher 222
Credible Speaker 222
Box 13.2 Speaker Apprehension Test 224
Box 13.3 Relaxation Techniques 226
Deep Breathing 226
Mind-Clearing and Imagery 226
Stretching 227
Moving 227
Positive Mental Attitude (PMA) 227
References and Further Reading 228
Chapter 14: Communicating Without Words 230
14.1 Introduction 230
14.2 Kinesics: Physical Movement 231
14.3 Proxemics: Personal Space 231
14.4 Semiotics: The Science of Symbols 232
14.5 Paralanguage 234
14.6 Psycholinguistics 235
14.7 Metaphors 236
14.8 Cultural Implications 236
14.9 Consistency in Using Nonverbals 237
14.10 Conclusion 238
14.11 Case Study: Nonverbal Communication. 238
Nonverbals between Superior and Subordinate Workers 238
14.12 Case Study: Proxemics. 238
‘Personal Space’ functional artwork by Vivian Puxian 238
References and Further Reading 239
Chapter 15: Using Visual Aids 240
15.1 Introduction 240
15.2 Visual Aid Basics 240
15.3 You Don’t Always Have Electricity 242
15.4 Authentic Items and Models 242
15.5 Warm Fuzzies 243
15.6 Flipcharts, Chalkboards and Whiteboards 243
15.6.1 Flipcharts 244
15.6.2 Chalkboards 245
15.6.3 Whiteboards 245
15.7 Handouts 245
15.8 Even When You Do Have Electricity 246
15.9 Overhead Projectors and Transparencies 246
15.10 Slides 247
15.11 Video and Audio Clips 248
15.12 Computer-Generated Images and Programs (PowerPoint, Keynote) 248
15.13 Conclusion 250
15.14 Case Study: Using Visual Aids. 251
‘Thirst’ Presentation by Jeff Brenman of Apollo Ideas 251
Box 15.1 Do’s and Don’ts’ of Powerpoint 251
Box 15.2 Techniques for Successful Presentations with Overhead Slides (Applicable to Powerpoint) 253
References and Further Reading 254
Chapter 16: Dealing with the News Media 255
16.1 Introduction 255
16.2 What Is the News Process? 255
16.3 Role of the Media 256
16.4 News Reporting Constraints 256
16.5 Accuracy in News vs. Accuracy in Science 257
16.6 Other Limitations to Science and Environmental Reporting 258
16.7 News Releases 259
16.8 News Media Options 260
16.9 Scientists/Engineers and the News 261
16.10 Conclusion 262
16.11 Case Study: Media Relations. 263
Environmental Working Group 263
References and Further Reading 263
Chapter 17: Managing Conflict 264
17.1 Introduction 264
17.2 Values of the Environment 264
17.3 Reasons for Conflict 265
17.4 Anatomy of Conflict 265
17.5 Resolving Disputes 267
17.6 Communicating About Conflict 268
17.7 Conflict Happens 269
17.8 Conclusion 270
17.9 Case Study: Conflict Management in the United States Allagash Wilderness Waterway, Maine 270
17.10 Case Study: Conflict Management in Mongolia. 271
Pastoralists vs. Miners 271
References and Further Reading 272
Chapter 18: Communicating About Risk 274
18.1 Introduction 274
18.2 What Is Hazard? 275
18.3 Outrage 275
18.4 Risk Acceptance 276
18.5 Mass Media Reports 278
18.6 Acknowledge Uncertainty to Communicate Risk Effectively 278
18.7 Final Thoughts 279
18.8 Case Study: Risk Analysis. 280
Apples and Alar 280
References and Further Reading 281
Chapter 19: Learning from Marketing and Public Relations 283
19.1 Introduction 283
19.2 Marketing and Social Marketing 283
19.3 Public Relations 285
19.4 Propaganda 287
19.5 Greenwashing 287
19.6 Philanthropy as Communication 289
19.7 Summary 289
19.8 Case Study: Marketing and Public Relations. 290
19.9 Case Study: Marketing and Public Relations. 290
References and Further Reading 291
Chapter 20: Walking the Talk of Green Business and Sustainability 293
20.1 Introduction 293
20.2 Corporate Social Responsibility 294
20.3 Frameworks for Sustainable Business Practices 295
20.3.1 Hannover Principles 295
20.3.2 Sanborn Principles 296
20.3.3 Principles of Ecological Design 297
20.3.4 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design 298
20.3.5 A Sense of Place for Businesses 298
20.3.6 Corporation 20/20 300
20.3.7 Green to Gold 300
20.4 Thinking Differently, Thinking Systemically 301
20.5 Corporate Sustainability Reporting 302
20.6 World Business Council for Sustainable Development 302
20.7 The Fourth Quadrant and the Green Collar Economy 303
20.8 Case Study: Walking the Talk in the United States LEED Platinum Certification for the Leopold Center, Baraboo, Wisconsin 304
20.9 Case Study: Walking the Talk in Sweden Corporate Sustainability Reporting by Svenska Cellulosa Aktiebolaget SCA, Sweden 305
20.10 Epilogue 306
References and Further Reading 306
Index 308