Adaptation to Climate Change: A Spatial Challenge (eBook)

Foreword 5
Preface 7
Acknowledgements 10
Contents 11
About the Author 17
Introduction 18
1 Create Space for Climate 19
1.1 Climate Change 20
1.2 The Dutch Approach 22
1.2.1 Dutch Climate Scenarios 22
1.2.2 The Dutch Adaptation Strategy 24
1.2.2.1 Economic Driver 25
1.2.2.2 Three Demands for a Climate Proof Lay Out 25
1.2.2.3 Risk Management and Natural Processes 26
1.2.2.4 Spatial Tasks 27
1.2.2.5 Important Issues 33
1.2.2.6 Ambition of the Dutch Strategy 34
1.2.3 The Dutch Adaptation Agenda 34
1.3 The British Approach 35
1.3.1 UK-Climate Scenarios 36
1.3.2 Risk Management 36
1.3.3 Social and Cultural Scenarios 41
1.3.4 Built Environment 41
1.3.5 Urban Water Management 43
1.3.6 Energy Supply 44
1.3.7 Other Research Themes 45
1.3.8 Conclusion 45
1.4 Spanish Approach 47
1.4.1 PNACC 47
1.4.2 Implementation Through Work Programmes 48
1.4.2.1 Coastal Areas 49
1.4.2.2 Water Resources 49
1.4.2.3 Biodiversity 50
1.4.3 Spatial Planning and Construction 52
1.4.4 Accents in the Spanish Adaptation Strategy 53
1.5 Climate Adaptation Strategy of Denmark 53
1.5.1 Objective of the Adaptation Strategy 54
1.5.2 Sectors that May be Affected by Climate Change 55
1.5.3 Cross-Cutting Initiatives 57
1.5.3.1 Targeted Information Efforts 57
1.5.3.2 Research Strategy 58
1.5.3.3 Future Organisation 58
1.5.4 Spatial Planning 59
1.5.5 Character of the Danish Approach 59
1.6 Wise Adaptation to Climate Change, Japan 59
1.6.1 Impacts of Climate Change in Japan 60
1.6.2 Wise Adaptation 65
1.6.3 Future Challenges 69
1.6.4 The Japanese Approach 69
1.7 Finland 70
1.7.1 The Impact of and Adaptation Measures to Climate Change in Different Sectors 70
1.7.2 Cross-Sectoral Issues 70
1.7.2.1 Development of Administrative Capacities 70
1.7.2.2 Observation and Warning Systems 73
1.7.2.3 Research and Development 73
1.7.2.4 Education and Communication 73
1.7.3 The Finnish Strategy 73
1.8 Comparison of Strategies 73
1.9 Conclusions 74
References 75
Website: 76
2 Design Adaptation to Climate Change 77
2.1 Design of a Climate Proof Netherlands 78
2.2 The Role of Spatial Planning 79
2.3 An Innovative Approach 80
2.4 Climate Atlases 80
2.4.1 First Results 85
2.4.1.1 Temperature 85
2.5 Development of Design Principles 88
2.5.1 Meaning for Nature and Agriculture 90
2.5.2 Meaning for Spatial Patterns 91
2.5.3 Time 92
2.6 The Groningen Case 93
2.6.1 Starting Point Groningen: Two Scenarios 94
2.6.2 Knowledge of Climate 95
2.6.2.1 Precipitation 95
2.6.2.2 Sea Level Rise 97
2.7 Consequences for Different Functions 97
2.7.1 Nature and Agriculture 98
2.7.2 An Offensive Coastal Defence 102
2.7.3 Urban Developments 104
2.8 Idea-Map Climate Adapted Groningen 105
2.9 Chinese Demonstration Projects 107
2.9.1 The Longhu Project, Chongqing 109
2.9.1.1 Climate Change Effects 109
2.9.1.2 Analysis of the Site 109
2.9.1.3 Aim 109
2.9.1.4 Water-Bodies 110
2.9.1.5 Natural Ventilation 110
2.9.1.6 Biodiversity 111
2.9.1.7 The Elements: How and Where Positioned 112
2.9.1.8 Models 113
2.9.1.9 Integrated Water System 113
2.9.1.10 An Integral Model: Rough Zoning Plan 113
2.9.2 Yu'an and Anjing in Yunyan District, Guiyang 114
2.9.2.1 Climate Change Effects 115
2.9.2.2 Aim 115
2.9.2.3 Analysis 115
2.9.2.4 Rainwater Approach 115
2.9.2.5 Fit in the Site 118
2.9.2.6 The 'Cake': Concentrating Building Densities 119
2.9.3 Vanke's Stream Valley, Shenzhen 119
2.9.3.1 Climate Change Effects 120
2.9.3.2 Aims 120
2.9.3.3 A Short History of Stream Valley 121
2.9.3.4 Ecology 121
2.9.3.5 Water System 121
2.9.3.6 Conceptual Suggestions 123
2.9.4 Chinese Experience 125
2.10 Chances of a Design Approach 127
2.10.1 Implementation 127
References 128
Websites: 129
3 The Coast 130
3.1 Introduction 131
3.2 Dutch Coastal Defence 131
3.2.1 A forever Changing Coastline 131
3.2.2 Dutch Weak Links 133
3.2.3 Integrated Development Perspective for the South Holland Coast 134
3.2.4 ComCoast 135
3.2.5 Land in Sea! 142
3.2.6 Groningen Combinatory of Coastal Defences 148
3.2.7 Attention for Safety 151
3.2.8 The Dutch 'Delta Commission' 153
3.2.8.1 Urgency 155
3.2.8.2 Emerging Problems 156
3.2.8.3 Future Vision 156
3.2.8.4 Short and Mid-Term Measures 159
3.2.8.5 Broad Dikes 161
3.2.9 Synthesis 162
3.3 Hamburg Hafencity 162
3.3.1 Masterplan 163
3.3.2 Dealing with Potential Flooding 164
3.4 Thames Gateway London 168
3.4.1 Thames Estuary 2100 168
3.4.2 Delivery Plan for the Gateway 169
3.4.3 Element in the Gateway: Thames Barrier 171
3.4.4 A Floating City 173
3.4.5 Three of a Kind 177
3.5 New Orleans 179
3.5.1 Coast 2050 179
3.5.2 US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) 182
3.5.3 State of Louisiana Master Plan 187
3.5.4 The MIR Project 193
3.6 Conclusion 196
References 197
Websites: 199
4 Water Management 200
4.1 Water Policies in The Netherlands 201
4.1.1 Risk 201
4.1.2 Water Policy in the 21st Century 202
4.1.3 Dutch National Water Vision 204
4.1.4 Water Safety 204
4.2 SAFER and ELLA Projects 204
4.2.1 ELLA 205
4.2.2 SAFER 207
4.3 Flood Risk 209
4.4 Building a House 210
4.4.1 Type of Water 215
4.4.1.1 Peak Storage 215
4.4.1.2 Seasonal Storage 215
4.4.1.3 Calamity Storage 216
4.4.1.4 High Tides 216
4.4.1.5 Groundwater Annoyance 216
4.4.2 A Japanese Experience 217
4.4.3 Types of Houses 219
4.4.3.1 Wet Proof House 220
4.4.3.2 Dry Proof House 220
4.4.3.3 Shore House 222
4.4.3.4 Column House 222
4.4.3.5 Floating House 223
4.4.3.6 Amphibic House 223
4.4.3.7 The Slight Drainage House 224
4.4.4 Combination of House and Water Typologies 224
4.5 Conclusion 225
References 226
Websites: 227
5 Ecology 228
5.1 Introduction 229
5.2 Directives 229
5.2.1 Bird's Directive 230
5.2.2 Habitat Directive 230
5.3 Natura 2000 233
5.4 Dutch Spatial-Ecological Concepts 237
5.4.1 Ecological Main Structure 237
5.4.2 National Landscapes 241
5.5 Effects of Climate Change on Nature 242
5.6 Sensitivity 243
5.7 Dilemma: Strict Rules or Flexibility 247
5.8 Adaptation Strategies 247
5.9 The BRANCH Project 253
5.10 Use of BRANCH Principles in Groningen Province 256
5.11 Climate Buffers 259
5.11.1 River Landscape 261
5.11.2 High Parts of the Netherlands (Higher Sand and Hilly Landscapes) 263
5.11.3 Lower Parts of the Netherlands (Lower Peat Landscapes) 263
5.11.4 The Coast, the Wadden and Estuaries (Estuaries and Dunes) 264
5.12 Conclusion 265
References 267
Websites: 268
6 Energy Potentials 269
6.1 Introduction 270
6.1.1 Towards a Sustainable Provision of Energy 270
6.2 Energy in the Future City 270
6.1.2 The Oil Price 271
6.1.3 Predicting the Price of Oil 274
6.1.4 Consequences 274
6.1.5 Capitalisation of Land and Real Estate 276
6.1.6 Implications to Commuters 277
6.1.7 Spatial Solutions 278
6.1.8 Different Energy Resources 279
6.1.9 Sustainable Development 279
6.2 Energy Potential Mapping 279
6.2.1 Background 280
6.2.2 The Methodology of Mapping Energy Potentials 281
6.3 The Local Energy Toolbox 282
6.3.1 Climate and Energy 282
6.3.2 The Sun 283
6.3.3 Electricity 283
6.3.4 Heat 285
6.3.5 Wind 285
6.3.6 Water 287
6.3.7 Biomass and Waste 289
6.3.7.1 Fuel 289
6.3.7.2 Electricity 289
6.3.7.3 Heat 291
6.3.8 The Underground 291
6.3.8.1 The Deep Underground 291
6.3.8.2 The Intermediate Underground 292
6.3.8.3 The Shallow Underground 293
6.3.9 Exchanging and Cascading Heat and Cold 293
6.3.9.1 Exergy 293
6.3.9.2 The Low-Ex Approach 294
6.3.9.3 Tuning Heat and Cold Supply and Demand 296
6.4 Example: Energy Potentials of the Province of Groningen 296
6.4.1 Electricity 297
6.4.2 Heat and Cold 298
6.4.3 CO 2 Capture 298
6.4.4 An Overlay of Potentials 299
6.4.5 Towards a Sustainable Provincial Plan 301
6.4.6 Outcomes of the Groningen POP Study 301
6.5 Conclusions 301
6.5.1 Considerations 302
References 302
7 The Urban Environment 305
7.1 Introduction 306
7.2 Occupation Strategy 306
7.3 Precipitation 308
7.3.1 Thames Gateway 310
7.3.2 Urban Flood Management in Dordrecht 311
7.3.3 Zuidplaspolder 316
7.3.4 Building with Water in Haarlemmermeer 320
7.4 Heat in the City 321
7.4.1 Non-physical Heat Effects 325
7.5 Good Practices Guide (UK) 325
7.5.1 The Centre of Bedford 326
7.5.2 Isle of Dogs in the City of London 327
7.5.3 Urban Expansion: Isle of Sheppey 329
7.6 Concluding Remarks 330
References 333
Websites: 334
8 Landscape 2.0 335
8.1 In Patagonia 336
8.2 Web 2.0 337
8.2.1 A New Energy Order? 338
8.2.2 Landscape 2.0 339
8.3 Challenges of Complexity in Planning 340
8.3.1 A Society in Turbulent Circumstances 340
8.3.2 Internet-Economy: The Turbulence Driver 341
8.3.3 The State of Today's Spatial Planning Practice 343
8.3.4 New Environment for Planning: Small Adjustments Made 344
8.3.5 Increase Resilience 346
8.3.6 Complex Adaptive Systems 347
8.3.7 Typology of Complex Systems 347
8.3.8 Tipping Points 349
8.3.9 A New Design Paradigm, Swarm Planning 351
8.3.9.1 Swarm 'Avant-La-Lettre': The Groninger Museum 352
8.4 The Groningen Case 353
8.4.1 Understanding the System: Mapping Climate and Energy Potentials 356
8.4.2 Improving Resilience: Use of Swarm Planning Paradigm 356
8.4.3 Strategic Interventions: The Groningen Impulses 356
8.4.3.1 Fresh Water Storage in Lauwers Lake 358
8.4.3.2 Kwelderworks Eemsdike 358
8.4.3.3 Blauwe Stad 359
8.4.3.4 Dynamic Coast Fivelboezem 361
8.4.4 Steer the Swarm 362
8.4.5 The Groningen Case Discussed 362
8.4.5.1 Mapping 362
8.4.5.2 Idea Map 363
8.4.5.3 Interventions 363
8.4.5.4 In the Real World 364
8.5 Conclusions 364
References 366
Conclusion 369
The Role of Spatial Planning and Design 369
The Chapters Summarised 369
Standards Are the Standard 370
Adaptation to Climate Change: A Spatial Challenge 371
Index 372