History of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology (eBook)

Edwin Wallace IV, M.D., is Professor of Psychiatry and Research Professor of Bioethics at the University of South Carolina. Until 1995 he was Professor and Vice Chairman of the Department of Psychiatry and Health Behavior at the Medical College of Georgia. In 1984 he published Historiography and Causation in Psychoanalysis (Analytic Press) and is generally regarded as an expert on the history of psychiatry and medical psychology. Dr. Wallace is a cofounder of the Association for the Advancement of Philosophy and Psychiatry (a 1200-member international organization that publishes a quarterly journal Philosophy, Psychiatry, and Psychology with Johns Hopkins University Press). John Gach is owner and president of John Gach Books, Inc., an antiquarian bookselling firm that has specialized in rare and out-of-print psychiatry, psychoanalysis, psychology, and neuroscience for 35 years. Regarded as a leading authority on the bibliography of books in the fields his firm deals in, Gach has published a number of review essays in journals such as the Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, and a chapter in Essays in the History of Psychiatry, edited by Edwin Wallace and Lucius Pressley. Most recently he edited for Thoemmes Press the series Foundations of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, which reprinted both the eighth German edition of Emil Kraepelin's Psychiatrie and the five Kraepelin titles published in English during his lifetime. He has also been engaged in a long term project to describe and comprehend the phenomenology of book collecting, about which topic he has lectured.

Dedication Page 5
Table of Contents 6
Acknowledgments 9
Preface 10
Introduction: Synopsis and Overview 15
Section One: Prolegomenon 15
Section Two: Periods 18
Proto-Psychiatry 18
The Growth of Psychiatry as a Medical Specialty 22
Section Three: Concepts and Topics 29
Concepts 29
Topics 33
Epilogue: Psychiatry and the Mind-Body Relation 39
Contributors 40
Section One: Prolegomenon 45
Chapter 1 Historiography: Philosophy and Methodology of History, with Special Emphasis on Medicine and Psychiatry and an Appendix on “Historiography” as the History of History
Introduction 46
The Philosophy of History 47
Subject Matter 47
Theory and Data 49
History as Relationship 54
Historicism Versus Positivism and Covering Laws 57
Causation 61
The Nature of the Discipline 70
The Methodology of History 73
Presentism 80
“Internalism” versus “Externalism” 84
Applications of Psychiatry to History 90
Historical Psychology 95
Utility 98
Conclusion 107
Appendix. Historiography as the History of History: An Annotated Bibliography with Short Essays 111
General Overviews 111
Antiquity 113
Medieval 113
Renaissance and Reformation 113
Seventeenth Century 114
The Enlightenment (Eighteenth Century) 115
The Nineteenth-Century Historical Revolution 117
Twentieth Century 119
Additional Speculative, or Philosophical, History 120
Non-Western Historiography: Chinese, Islamic, and Indian (see also Chapter Two) 122
Encyclopedic References, Dictionaries, and Methodological Manuals 123
Journals 125
Notes and References 126
Chapter 2 Contextualizing the History of Psychiatry/Psychology and Psychoanalysis: Annotated Bibliography and Essays: Addenda A–F 159
Addendum A. General World History 159
Addendum A1. Military History 160
Addendum B. European Intellectual and Cultural History 162
B1. More History of Philosophy and Other Matters (Including Asia) 164
Addendum C. Philosophy of Science and Technology 167
A Wittgenstein Interlude 171
Addendum D. History of Science and Technology 173
D1. Metaphors in Science 177
Addendum E. History of Medicine 178
Snippet on the History of Medicine as Centering-Round Surgery/Dentistry and Anesthesia 184
Addendum E1. Important Dates and Events in American Medicine 191
Addendum F. History of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Psychoanalysis 197
Egyptian Interlude: Medicine/Psychology 199
Evoluntionist Digression 205
Section Two: Periods 212
Proto-Psychiatry 213
Chapter 3 Mind and Madness in Classical Antiquity 214
Introduction 214
What Is Entailed in Writing a History of Psychiatry in Greek and Roman Antiquity? 216
The Role of “Ancestors” in the History and Historiography of Ancient Psychiatry 220
Ancient Humoral Theory: Black Bile and Other Bad Humors 220
Demonic Possession 222
The Evil Eye 224
Healing Shrines and Hero Worship 225
The Cultivation of Mystical States in Late Antiquity 226
Stoic Philosophy as a System of Psychotherapy 227
Fictional Cases 229
Conclusion 231
Annotated Bibliography 231
Notes and References 232
Chapter 4 Mental Disturbances, Unusual Mental States, and Their Interpretation during the Middle Ages 237
Introduction 237
The Classical Tradition 237
The Early Christian Period 240
The Monastic Period 242
Arabic Culture 243
Prevalence of Feudalism and the Beginning of the Modern World 244
The Revival of Learning in the West in the Thirteenth Century 245
Social and Economic Progress in the Thirteenth Century 247
The Impact of the Late Middle Ages on Human Life: The Waning of the Middle Ages 248
Basic Medieval Tenets Concerning the World and Human Nature 251
Psychopathology and Mental Illness in the Middle Ages 253
Psychopathology 253
Mental Illness 255
Epilogue 258
Notes and References 259
Chapter 5 Renaissance Conceptions and Treatments of Madness 265
Introduction 265
Emergence of Humanism 266
Images of Folly 267
Literary Expressions 267
Popular Expressions 268
Pictorial Expressions 269
Folly and Madness 269
Insanity 270
Esoteric Expressions of the Counter-Renaissance 271
Witchcraft in the Renaissance 272
The Historiography of Witchcraft 272
Witchcraft in the Context of Magic 273
Witchcraft and Psychopathology 274
Important Persons in Relation to Renaissance Psychiatry 277
Leonardo da Vinci 277
Vives 277
Paracelsus 278
Jerome Cardan 279
Johann Weyer 280
Giambattista Porta 282
Juan Huarte 282
Paolo Zacchia 283
Attitudes Toward Mental Illness 283
Lay Attitude 283
Medical Attitudes 284
Literary Attitudes 285
Mental Institutions 286
Epilogue 286
Notes and References 287
Chapter 6 The Madman in the Light of Reason. Enlightenment Psychiatry: Part I. Custody, Therapy, Theory and the Need for Reform 293
Custody without Care 293
Prelude to Enlightened Psychiatry 293
A Tradition of Tolerance 294
The Catholic Spanish Model 295
“Madhouse” and “Maison de Santé” 297
Protestant and Catholic Traditions in Germany 299
Brothers of Charity and Lettres de Cachet 300
The Growth of German Custodial Institutions 303
Enter The Doctor 304
Medical Therapy 304
Theories of Mental Illness 305
Man’s Right to Health Care 307
Notes and References 308
The Growth of Psychiatry as a Medical Specialty 316
Chapter 7 The Madman in the Light of Reason. Enlightenment Psychiatry: Part II. Alienists, Treatises, and the Psychologic Approach in the Era of Pinel 317
The Myth of Pinel, the Chain-Breaker 317
The “Enlightened” Literature on Mental Illness 318
Of Language and Prejudice 320
Two Forerunners: William Battie and Andrés Piquer 321
Joseph Daquin of Savoy 322
Traditional Theory, Innovative Action: Vincenzo Chiarugi, Thomas Arnold, Benjamin Rush 323
The German Approach to Psychiatry: Johann Christian Reil and Johann Gottfried Langermann 326
Alexander Crichton and the Transmission of German Learning to France 328
Philippe Pinel 331
Notes and References 332
Chapter 8 Philippe Pinel in the Twenty-First Century: The Myth and the Message 340
The Myth 340
The Myth in Politics 341
The Birth of the Asylum 342
The Asylum and the Rights of the Citizen-Patient 343
The Psychiatric Profession in the Era of Realism 344
Esquirol’s Power and Pinel’s Message 344
Notes and References 345
Chapter 9 German Romantic Psychiatry: Part I. Earlier, Including More-Psychological Orientations 348
German Sociopolitical Background 348
German Thought and Philosophy 349
Medicine at the German Universities 350
J. C. Reil 353
A. Haindorf and F. Schelling 357
J. C. A. Heinroth 358
Heinroth’s History of Psychiatry 359
Heinroth’s Diagnostics 360
Heinroth and Forensic Psychiatry 361
J. B. Friedreich 362
Acknowledgments 364
Notes and References 364
Chapter 10 German Romantic Psychiatry: Part II. Later, Including More-Somatic Orientations 369
German Institutions and the Political Situation 369
The Beginnings of Psychiatric Institutions 370
K. W. Jacobi and the Siegburg 370
View of Jacobi’s Treatment 374
C. F. Nasse 374
D. G. Kieser 376
K. W. Ideler 377
E. von Feuchtersleben 379
Notes and References 381
Chapter 11 Descriptive Psychiatry and Psychiatric Nosology during the Nineteenth Century 386
The Development of Descriptive Psychopathology 387
Definitions 387
The Problems 387
The New Descriptive Needs 387
The Psychological Theories 388
Faculty Psychology 388
Kant’s Version of Faculty Psychology and the Nineteenth Century 389
Associationism 389
Associationism before the Nineteenth Century 389
Associationism during the Nineteenth Century 390
The Surface Markers of Disease 390
Assumptions and Concepts 391
Form and Content 391
Numerical Representation and Measurement 392
The Psychopathology of Nonverbal Behavior 392
Disease and the Time Dimension 393
The Incorporation of Subjectivity 393
The Development of the Concept of Mental Disease 394
The Clinico-Anatomical View 394
Psychological Definitions of Behavior 394
Taxonomic Changes 394
The Combined Psychoses Debate 395
The Heritability of Mental Illness 395
Transformation of Insanity into “Psychoses” during the Nineteenth Century 395
The Adoption of the Word “Psychosis” 395
The Defining Dichotomies 396
Psychoses versus Neuroses 396
Functional versus Organic 396
Exogenous versus Endogenous 397
Total versus Partial Insanity 398
Unitary versus Multiple Psychoses 398
Three Modules of the Mind and Their Insanities 399
The Separation of the Organic States 399
The Narrowing Down of the Mania Concept 400
Whither the History of Psychiatric Nosology? 401
Notes and References 402
Chapter 12 Biological Psychiatry in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries 413
Introduction 413
Griesinger and the Organic Approach to Mental Illness 414
Major Changes in Biological Thought 415
Griesinger and Academic Psychiatry 416
French, English, and American Psychiatry 417
The Failure of Histopathology 418
Heredity and Degeneration 418
Cerebral Localization and Neuroanatomical Concepts 420
The Early Use of Drugs and Physical Theories 421
The Shift to Functional Concepts and Environmentalism 422
The Paradigm of General Paresis 422
Further Paradigms: Toxic, Nutritional Deficiency, Thyroid Deficiency and Heredity 424
Kraepelin and the Dementia Praecox Concept 425
Developments in Heredity, Genetics, and Eugenics 426
Endocrinology 427
Physical Therapies 428
Other Post–World War I Changes in European Psychiatry 429
Developments Following World War II 430
Biological Psychiatry circa 1950 431
Neurotransmitters as Chemical Mediators of Nerve Impulses: The Basis for Modern Psychopharmacology 432
Modern Psychopharmacology 432
Neuropsychopharmacology (Neuropharmacology and Psychopharmacology): The Emergence of a New Science 435
Biological Psychiatry and Developments in Neuroscience 437
Conclusion 439
Notes and References 439
Chapter 13 The Intersection of Psychopharmacology and Psychiatry in the Second Half of the Twentieth Century 451
In The Beginning 451
The Phenothiazines 451
The Idea of a Neuroleptic 453
Imipramine 453
Isoniazid 454
Reserpine 455
Iproniazid 456
Meprobamate 457
The Middle Years 457
The Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia 458
Tardive Dyskinesia and Antipsychiatry 459
The Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors 461
The Arrow of History 462
Psychopharmacology and the Enlightenment 462
Psychopharmacology and Science 463
Psychopharmacology and New Markets 465
Notes and References 467
Section Three: Concepts and Topics 470
Concepts 471
Chapter 14 A History of Melancholia and Depression 472
Introduction 472
The Vicissitudes of a Clinical Description 474
Modes of Explanation 478
A Few Themes and Many Therapies 481
Further Considerations 484
Notes and References 486
Chapter 15 Constructing Schizophrenia as a Category of Mental Illness 490
Toward a Definition of the Scope of a History of Schizophrenia 490
The Background of the Concept of Schizophrenia 491
Toward a Synthetic Concept of Schizophrenia 493
The Appearance of Schizophrenia 496
From Parergasia to the “Divided Self ” 499
The Genetics and Biology of Schizophrenia 503
Conclusion 507
Notes and References 507
Chapter 16 The Concept of Psychosomatic Medicine 513
Introduction 513
The Origin of the Term “Psychosomatic” 514
The Definition and Content of Psychosomatic Medicine 515
Toward a Medicine of Living Persons 517
The Role of the Emotions (Passions and Affections) in the History of Psychosomatic Medicine 519
The Emotions 519
Psychophysiology of the Emotions 526
Psychophysiological Mechanisms 527
Selected Specific Diseases: The Role of the Emotions 528
Symptoms and Diseases of the Gut 528
Hyperthyroidism 529
Diseases of the Heart: Angina Pectoris 529
Diseases of the Heart: Essential Hypertension 530
Soldier’s Heart, Neurocirculatory Asthenia, and So On 530
Amenorrhea 530
The Beginnings of Psychosomatic Medicine (1920–1960) 531
Conclusion 535
Notes and References 536
Topics 545
Chapter 17 Neurology’s Influence on American Psychiatry: 1865–1915 546
Notes and References 556
Chapter 18 The Transformation of American Psychiatry From Institution to Community, 1800–2000 559
Creation of Institutions 559
Institutional Change 563
Reorientation of Psychiatry 566
Winds of Change in Mid-Twentieth Century America 571
Conclusion 574
Acknowledgment 576
Notes and References 576
Chapter 19 The Transition to Secular Psychotherapy: Hypnosis and the Alternate-Consciousness Paradigm 581
Historiography 582
Mesmer and Animal Magnetism 583
The Marquis de Puységur and Magnetic Sleep 584
The Beginnings of Magnetic Psychotherapy 585
The Alternate-Consciousness Paradigm at 1800 588
Magnetic Somnambulism in France after 1800 589
Magnetic Somnambulism in Germany 590
Magnetic Somnambulism in the United States 592
Magnetic Somnambulism in England 594
James Braid and the Rise of Hypnotism 595
Hypnotism in France and Germany 596
Magnetic Somnambulism and Multiple Personality 597
An Alternate Consciousness 598
Symptom Language 599
The Duality of the Mind 600
Pierre Janet and Subconscious Mental Activity 601
Subconscious Mental Activity: Further Developments 602
Josef Breuer and Sigmund Freud 604
The Alternate Consciousness Paradigm in 1910 605
Notes and References 606
Chapter 20 Psychoanalysis in Central Europe: The Interplay of Psychoanalysis and Culture 613
Preface 613
Introduction 613
Austria 614
Reception and Reaction 615
The 1920s and 1930s 619
Switzerland 620
Reception and Reaction 624
The 1920s 627
Post-World War II 627
Germany 627
Reception and Reaction 630
The 1920s and 1930s 635
Conclusion 638
Appendix 638
Austria 639
Germany 639
Switzerland 640
Notes and References 640
Bibliography 646
General 646
Austria 649
England 650
France 650
Germany 651
Hungary 652
Italy 652
The Netherlands 653
Scandinavia 653
Spain 653
Switzerland 653
Chapter 21 The Psychoanalytic Movement in the United States, 1906–1991 655
Introduction and Historiography 655
The Prehistory of Analysis in America (1895–1909) 656
The Early Decades: 1906–1946 657
A Tale of Three Cities and a National Association (1909–1925) 657
The Age of Institutes and Analytic Training Abroad (1925–1938) 661
Immigration and the Europeanization of American Analysis, 1933–1946 664
“The Years that Were Fat”: Postwar Expansion and Institutional Splits, 1946–1968 666
Military Psychiatry and the Spread of Analysis 666
Controversies and Institutional Splitting 667
Postwar Expansion in Retrospect 670
The Lean Years, 1968 to the Present 672
The Battle over Certification 675
Shrinking Support for Analytic Research 675
Changes in Analytic Psychotherapy 676
Changes in Psychoanalytic Theory 676
Concluding Remarks 677
Epilogue 679
Notes and References 680
Chapter 22 The Development of Clinical Psychology, Social Work, and Psychiatric Nursing: 1900–1980s 683
Prologue 683
Origins of the Mental Health Team Concept 684
The Mental Health Team in the Interwar Period 688
World War II and the Growth of Federal Involvement in Mental Health Care 693
Post–World War II Trends 695
Community Mental Health, Deinstitutionalization, and the Anti-Psychiatry Movement 698
Conclusion 699
Acknowledgments 700
Notes and References 701
Epilogue: Psychiatry and the Mind-Body Relation 709
Chapter 23 Thoughts Toward a Critique of Biological Psychiatry 710
Notes and References 717
Chapter 24 Two “Mind”-“Body” Models for a Holistic Psychiatry 719
Introduction 719
Monistic Single Aspect–Dual Aspect Interactionism 719
Psychiatry’s Sickness and Its Biological Cure: A Functionalist Approach to the Mind-Body Relation 727
Introduction 728
Preliminary Concerns 728
Antithesis and Synthesis: Initial Issues 728
“Given” and “Subject Matter” 729
Reductive Visions of Neuroscience and Molecular Biology 730
Some Logicolinguistic Problems with Neuroreductionism 734
Further Pitfalls 735
Human Biology and Biological Psychiatry 737
The Integrated Organism 737
Theoretical and Therapeutic Ramifications 737
Further Implications and Consequences 738
Conclusion 740
Notes and References 741
Chapter 25 Freud on “Mind-Body” I: The Psychoneurobiological and “Instinctualist” Stance with Implications for Chapter 24, and Two Postscripts
Beyond the Project: The Middle and Later Years 753
Conclusion 762
Epilogue 762
Notes and References 763
Postscript 1: Olfaction, Organic Repression, Evolutionism, and Adaptation 769
Postscript 2: Suggested Further Readings on Mind-Body, Evolutionism, and Related Matters with Annotations
Chapter 26 Freud on “Mind”-“Body” II: Drive, Motivation, Meaning, History, and Freud’s Psychological Heuristic with Clinical and Everyday Examples
Prologue 780
Motivation, Meaning, and Historical Determinism 780
Freud’s Psychological, or Psychogenetic/Dynamic, Heuristic in Action 786
The Oedipus Complex: Direct and Derivative Manifestations 792
Freud on Hard Determinism 794
Prehistory of Psychic Causality and Historical Determinism 797
Notes and References 801
Chapter 27 Psychosomatic Medicine and the Mind-Body Relation: Historical, Philosophical, Scientific, and Clinical Perspectives 803
Preface 803
The Mind/Brain/Body Problem 803
The Body 805
Purpose of the Chapter 806
Method 806
Conclusion 807
Notes and References 807
Introduction 808
Contributions of Psychosomatic Medicine 811
The Initial Phases of Psychosomatic Medicine (1920–1950) 812
To Summarize 815
The Heterogeneity of Ill-health and Disease 816
The Shift in Focus to the Stressful Environment 817
The Stressful Environment 817
The Study of the Emotions and Their Signaling Function: C. R. Darwin and W. B. Cannon 818
The Influence of H. Selye on Psychosomatic Medicine: The Effects of “Trauma” 819
Stressful Life Situations and Bodily Responses 820
The Environment 821
Vicissitudes of the Concept of Stress 822
Some Stressful Experiences and Their Attentuation: Reponses to Natural Disasters 823
Socio-Ecological Factors 824
War 824
Human Relationships: Disruption, Bereavement, Separation and Loss 825
Social Support 827
Social Isolation 827
Social Stability 827
Social Disruption 827
Sexual, Physical and Emotional Abuse 828
Work Conditions 829
Adaptation to Stressful Experiences 829
The Concept of Adaptation in Medicine 830
Experimental Stress Research: Animal and Human Subjects 831
General and Specific Physiological Responses to Stressful Experiences: Patterns’ Not Single Variables (See Tables 7A and 7B) 833
Patterned Catecholamine and Hormonal Responses to Avoidable Procedures 835
“Stress” Analgesia: Unavoidable Experiences 835
Studies in Nature: The Physiology of Social Hierarchies (Dominance and Submission) 836
Naturalistic Studies of the Role of Social Status on Hormonal Secretory Patterns 836
Cardiovascular Patterns and Fighting Behavior 837
Patterned Psychobiological Responses to Disruption of the Mother–Infant Relationship 837
Stressful Prenatal Experience 838
Hormonal Effects of Chronically Stressful Experience 838
Patterns of Changes in the Immune System in Human Subjects 839
Acute Stressful Experience Imposed on Chronic Ones in Human Beings 840
Summary 842
Animal Models of the Association of Stressful Experience and Disease Onset 842
Early Experience and Later Disease 843
The Consequences of the Disruption of Social Hierarchies in Cynomolgus Macaques: Arteriosclerosis 844
Atherogenesis, Arteriosclerosis, Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) and Its Outcome in Human Beings (See again Tables 7A and 7B) 844
Additional Factors That Led Up to These Final Events 845
Conclusion: The Current Integrated Medical Model 846
Epilogue 848
Notes and References 850
Glossary 857
Index 858

"Section Two Periods Chapter 3 Mind and Madness in Classical Antiquity (p. 175)

Bennett Simon

Introduction

The history of psychiatry in Greek and Roman antiquity is the frame story for the history of psychiatry in the Western world as well as the history of that topic in a particular era and in particular places. That is, it is not only one current in the stream that becomes modern psychiatry, but it is also the caput Nili, “the head of the Nile.” The terminology, categories, and core ways of thinking about mind and its derangements that evolved in ancient Greece have left an indelible stamp on all subsequent thinking about these topics. The distinction between rational and irrational, the notion of an internal mental life, and the notion of psychic conflict and that psychic conflicts can be categorized, classified, studied, and systematically influenced are all legacies from classical Greece.

The notion of the body as a system, as a balance, as a mechanism, as a hierarchy of organs, or as a parliament of organs—these underlie the medical models that arose from the fifth century B.C.E. onwards. Furthermore, the Greeks developed the idea that it is possible to understand how balances and imbalances among organs and body constituents influence mind and madness, how one central organ (at first believed to be the heart, but later the brain) is the organ of mental operations, and that that organ mediates influences from the outside world and from the internal world of the body.

The articulation of a concept of body and a concept of mind and the realization that if the person is thus divided there is a need to find a way of conceptualizing the unity are Greek “discoveries” or presuppositions that have left a permanent mark on our thinking about thinking.1 It is also apparent that much of the vocabulary of Western psychiatry is taken literally from Greek and Roman sources, and that new coinages (e.g., “psychotherapy”) drew heavily upon Greek and Roman words, often subtly importing the conceptual complexity of the ancient world into the modern way of thinking.

Mania, delirium, libido, melancholy, emotion, hysteria, passion, paranoia, and hypochondriasis are but some of the many terms taken more or less literally from the ancient languages and categories of thinking. In previous work,2 I have applied a particular schema to the history of psychiatry in classical Greek antiquity, a schema that is in part shaped organically by the historical material and in part by conceptual models within modern psychiatry.

The schema posits three models of mind and mental illness: (1) poetic models, principally in Homer and the Greek tragedies; (2) philosophical models, principally those of Plato; and (3) medical models. The poetic model presumes a relatively open boundary or “field of forces” as the main feature of the mind of the person. That is, the heroes and protagonists of epics and, to a lesser degree, of tragedies are represented as having unusual mental states inserted into them or inflicted upon them by an outside agency, typically a divinity. In the epics, many mental states and thoughts are depicted as thus induced by a divinity, while in the tragic dramas, it is mostly extreme states, such as madness, that are so induced. In Homer’s Odyssey, (23:5 ff)"