Diversity in U.S. Mass Media

Catherine A. Luther is Associate Professor and the Associate Dean for Academic Programs in the College of Communication and Information at the University of Tennessee–Knoxville, and was once a television news producer for American and Japanese television networks. Carolyn Ringer Lepre is Associate Professor at Marist College in New York who once worked as an Assistant Editor for Martha Stewart Living. Naeemah Clark teaches Media Management and Operations at Elon University in North Carolina.

Preface xi
1: Introduction 1


Social Identity 3


Racial/Ethnic Identity 4


Gender Identity 5


Sexual Identity 7


Age Identity 7


Disability Identity 8


Class Identity 9


Organization of Book 9


Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 11


Notes 11


2: Theoretical Foundations of Research in Mass Media Representations 13


Mass Media Representations: Social Psychological Perspectives 14


Framing 14


Social Comparison Theory 17


Socialization 18


Cultivation Theory 20


Media Representations: Critical Perspectives 22


Hegemony 23


The Concept of Representation 24


Feminist Theory 25


Three Waves of Feminism 28


Concluding Remarks 29


Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 29


Notes 30


3: Representations of Native Americans 33


Historical Background to Native American Representations 34


Native Americans in Film 36


Native Americans in Entertainment Television 42


Representation of Native Americans in the News 46


Native Americans and New Media 51


Concluding Remarks 52


Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 53


Notes 54


4: Representations of African Americans 56


Historical Background to African American Representations 57


African Americans in Film 58


African Americans in Entertainment Television 64


African American Music 68


Representation of African Americans in the News 69


African Americans and Advertisements 75


African Americans in the Media Business 76


Concluding Remarks 78


Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 79


Notes 79


5: Representations of Hispanics 83


Historical Background to Hispanic Representations 84


Hispanics in Film 86


Hispanics in Entertainment Television 89


Spanish–language Programs in the United States 93


Hispanics and Radio 95


Representation of Hispanics in the News 95


Spanish–language Newspapers in the United States 97


Spanish–language Magazines in the United States 101


Hispanics in Advertising 102


Hispanics and New Media 102


Concluding Remarks 103


Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 104


Notes 105


6: Representations of Arabs/Arab Americans 108


Historical Background to Arab/Arab American Representations 109


Arabs/Arab Americans in Film 111


Arabs/Arab Americans in Entertainment Television 117


Representation of Arabs/Arab Americans in the News 121


Concluding Remarks 126


Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 128


Notes 128


7: Representations of Asians/Asian Americans 130


Historical Background to Asian/Asian American Representations 131


Asians/Asian Americans in Film 132


Asians/Asian Americans in Entertainment Television 140


Representation of Asians/Asian Americans in the News 143


Concluding Remarks 147


Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 150


Notes 150


8: Representations of Gender in Television, Film, and Music Videos 152


Historical Background to Gender Representations in Film and Television 153


Gender in Film 156


Gender in Entertainment Television 163


Gender in Music Videos 171


Concluding Remarks 177


Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 180


Notes 181


9: Representations of Gender in Print Media and Advertising 183


Historical Background to Women in the Print Media 185


Gender in Magazines 186


Gender in Print News 190


Gender in Advertising 197


Gender Trends and "The Male Gaze" 200


Gender in New Media 203


Concluding Remarks 203


Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 204


Notes 204


10: Representations of Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, and the Transgendered in the Media 207


Historical Background to LGBT Representations 208


LGBT in Film 210


LGBT in Entertainment Television 216


LGBT in Music and Radio 221


Representations of LGBT in the News 223


LGBT and Magazines 224


LGBT and Advertising 226


LGBT and New Media 228


Concluding Remarks 229


Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 230


Notes 230


11: Representations of Age 232


Historical Background to Ageist Stereotypes and the Myths of Aging 233


Senior Citizens and Teenagers in the United States 235


Age in Film 236


Representations of Older and Elderly People 236


Representations of Teenagers 238


Age in Entertainment Television 243


Representations of Older and Elderly People 243


Representations of Teenagers 246


Representations of Age in the News 247


Representations of Older and Elderly People 247


Representations of Teenagers 250


Age and New Media 251


Concluding Remarks 253


Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 254


Notes 254


12: Representations of People with Disabilities 257


Historical Background to Representations of People with Disabilities 258


People with Disabilities in Film 261


People with Disabilities in Entertainment Television 262


People with Disabilities in the News 268


People with Disabilities in Advertising 271


Concluding Remarks 274


Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 274


Notes 275


13: Representations of Class 277


Historical Background to Class Representations 278


Representations of Class in Film 281


Representations of Class in Entertainment Television 287


Representations of Class in the News 290


Concluding Remarks 295


Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 296


Notes 296


14: Mass Media Industries Addressing Diversity 298


Broadcast News and Newspaper Industries and Diversity 298


The Magazine Industry and Diversity 302


Entertainment Industry and Diversity 303


The Mass Media Industry and Diversity Statements/Initiatives 306


Interviews with Mass Media Professionals 310


Brent Merrill 310


Kent Takano 311


Lisa Fernandez 313


Rebecca Traister 314


Richard Prince 316


Huma Razvi 317


Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 318


Notes 319


15: Conclusion 320


Common Threads in Mass Media Representations 320


Psychological Impact of Mass Media Representations 322


Minority Media as Counteracting Agents 323


Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 327


Notes 327


Digging Deeper 328


One Representation Replaces Another 328


Suggestions for Further Exploration 328


Sexuality and Power 329


Suggestions for Further Exploration 329


Rules and Regulations Impact Representations 329


Suggestions for Further Exploration 330


The Symbolic Annihilation of a Social Group 330


Suggestions for Further Exploration 330


Minorities as the "Other" 330


Suggestions for Further Exploration 331


Reliance of the News on White "Expert" Sources 331


Suggestions for Further Exploration 331


"False" Framing and Misrepresentation 332


Suggestions for Further Exploration 332


Online = New Opportunities 332


Suggestions for Further Exploration 332


Changes, Contradictions, and an Ever–moving Continuum 333


Suggestions for Further Exploration 333


Notes 333


Glossary of Key Terms/Concepts 334


References 342


Index 357