Diversity in U.S. Mass Media

Catherine A. Luther is Associate Professor and the Associate Dean for Academic Programs in the College of Communication and Information at the University of Tennessee-Knoxville, and was once a television news producer for American and Japanese television networks. Carolyn Ringer Lepre is Associate Professor at Marist College in New York who once worked as an Assistant Editor for Martha Stewart Living. Naeemah Clark teaches Media Management and Operations at Elon University in North Carolina.

Preface xi 1: Introduction 1 Social Identity 3 Racial/Ethnic Identity 4 Gender Identity 5 Sexual Identity 7 Age Identity 7 Disability Identity 8 Class Identity 9 Organization of Book 9 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 11 Notes 11 2: Theoretical Foundations of Research in Mass Media Representations 13 Mass Media Representations: Social Psychological Perspectives 14 Framing 14 Social Comparison Theory 17 Socialization 18 Cultivation Theory 20 Media Representations: Critical Perspectives 22 Hegemony 23 The Concept of Representation 24 Feminist Theory 25 Three Waves of Feminism 28 Concluding Remarks 29 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 29 Notes 30 3: Representations of Native Americans 33 Historical Background to Native American Representations 34 Native Americans in Film 36 Native Americans in Entertainment Television 42 Representation of Native Americans in the News 46 Native Americans and New Media 51 Concluding Remarks 52 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 53 Notes 54 4: Representations of African Americans 56 Historical Background to African American Representations 57 African Americans in Film 58 African Americans in Entertainment Television 64 African American Music 68 Representation of African Americans in the News 69 African Americans and Advertisements 75 African Americans in the Media Business 76 Concluding Remarks 78 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 79 Notes 79 5: Representations of Hispanics 83 Historical Background to Hispanic Representations 84 Hispanics in Film 86 Hispanics in Entertainment Television 89 Spanish-language Programs in the United States 93 Hispanics and Radio 95 Representation of Hispanics in the News 95 Spanish-language Newspapers in the United States 97 Spanish-language Magazines in the United States 101 Hispanics in Advertising 102 Hispanics and New Media 102 Concluding Remarks 103 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 104 Notes 105 6: Representations of Arabs/Arab Americans 108 Historical Background to Arab/Arab American Representations 109 Arabs/Arab Americans in Film 111 Arabs/Arab Americans in Entertainment Television 117 Representation of Arabs/Arab Americans in the News 121 Concluding Remarks 126 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 128 Notes 128 7: Representations of Asians/Asian Americans 130 Historical Background to Asian/Asian American Representations 131 Asians/Asian Americans in Film 132 Asians/Asian Americans in Entertainment Television 140 Representation of Asians/Asian Americans in the News 143 Concluding Remarks 147 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 150 Notes 150 8: Representations of Gender in Television, Film, and Music Videos 152 Historical Background to Gender Representations in Film and Television 153 Gender in Film 156 Gender in Entertainment Television 163 Gender in Music Videos 171 Concluding Remarks 177 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 180 Notes 181 9: Representations of Gender in Print Media and Advertising 183 Historical Background to Women in the Print Media 185 Gender in Magazines 186 Gender in Print News 190 Gender in Advertising 197 Gender Trends and "The Male Gaze" 200 Gender in New Media 203 Concluding Remarks 203 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 204 Notes 204 10: Representations of Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, and the Transgendered in the Media 207 Historical Background to LGBT Representations 208 LGBT in Film 210 LGBT in Entertainment Television 216 LGBT in Music and Radio 221 Representations of LGBT in the News 223 LGBT and Magazines 224 LGBT and Advertising 226 LGBT and New Media 228 Concluding Remarks 229 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 230 Notes 230 11: Representations of Age 232 Historical Background to Ageist Stereotypes and the Myths of Aging 233 Senior Citizens and Teenagers in the United States 235 Age in Film 236 Representations of Older and Elderly People 236 Representations of Teenagers 238 Age in Entertainment Television 243 Representations of Older and Elderly People 243 Representations of Teenagers 246 Representations of Age in the News 247 Representations of Older and Elderly People 247 Representations of Teenagers 250 Age and New Media 251 Concluding Remarks 253 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 254 Notes 254 12: Representations of People with Disabilities 257 Historical Background to Representations of People with Disabilities 258 People with Disabilities in Film 261 People with Disabilities in Entertainment Television 262 People with Disabilities in the News 268 People with Disabilities in Advertising 271 Concluding Remarks 274 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 274 Notes 275 13: Representations of Class 277 Historical Background to Class Representations 278 Representations of Class in Film 281 Representations of Class in Entertainment Television 287 Representations of Class in the News 290 Concluding Remarks 295 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 296 Notes 296 14: Mass Media Industries Addressing Diversity 298 Broadcast News and Newspaper Industries and Diversity 298 The Magazine Industry and Diversity 302 Entertainment Industry and Diversity 303 The Mass Media Industry and Diversity Statements/Initiatives 306 Interviews with Mass Media Professionals 310 Brent Merrill 310 Kent Takano 311 Lisa Fernandez 313 Rebecca Traister 314 Richard Prince 316 Huma Razvi 317 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 318 Notes 319 15: Conclusion 320 Common Threads in Mass Media Representations 320 Psychological Impact of Mass Media Representations 322 Minority Media as Counteracting Agents 323 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 327 Notes 327 Digging Deeper 328 One Representation Replaces Another 328 Suggestions for Further Exploration 328 Sexuality and Power 329 Suggestions for Further Exploration 329 Rules and Regulations Impact Representations 329 Suggestions for Further Exploration 330 The Symbolic Annihilation of a Social Group 330 Suggestions for Further Exploration 330 Minorities as the "Other" 330 Suggestions for Further Exploration 331 Reliance of the News on White "Expert" Sources 331 Suggestions for Further Exploration 331 "False" Framing and Misrepresentation 332 Suggestions for Further Exploration 332 Online = New Opportunities 332 Suggestions for Further Exploration 332 Changes, Contradictions, and an Ever-moving Continuum 333 Suggestions for Further Exploration 333 Notes 333 Glossary of Key Terms/Concepts 334 References 342 Index 357