e-Learning and the Science of Instruction

Richard E. Mayer, Ph.D., is a Distinguished Professor of Psychological and Brain Sciences at the University of California, Santa Barbara. His research focuses on the intersection of cognition, instruction, and technology. He is the author of more than 600 publications, including 40 books, and has been recognized as the most productive educational psychologist in the world. Ruth Colvin Clark, Ed.D., is the President and Principal Consultant of Clark Training & Consulting. She is a specialist in evidence-based training methods and bridging the gap between academic research and practitioner application.

Preface xv

Part I Foundations of e-Learning and the Science of Instruction 1

1 e-Learning: Promise and Pitfalls 3

What Is e-Learning? 4

The Evolution of e-Learning for Training 7

Is e-Learning Better? 9

The Promise of e-Learning 10

The Pitfalls of e-Learning 13

e-Learning Architectures 14

Twenty Years Later 15

2 How People Learn from e-Courses 19

How Do People Learn? 21

Guiding the Learner’s Cognitive Processing During Learning 25

Core Goals for Instructional Design in e-Learning 27

How e-Lessons Affect Learning 31

Summary of Learning Processes 34

What We Don’t Know About Learning 35

3 Evidence-Based Practice 39

What Is Evidence-Based Practice? 40

Rationale for Evidence-Based Practice 41

Three Approaches to Research on Instructional Effectiveness 42

What to Look for in Experimental Comparisons 43

What Are Boundary Conditions? 49

What Is a Meta-Analysis? 49

Limits of Experimental Research 50

Where Can You Find Relevant Research? 50

The Evolution of Evidence-Based Practice 51

What We Don’t Know About Evidence-Based Practice 51

Part II How to Leverage Visuals and Words in e-Learning 55

4 Applying the Multimedia Principle: Use Words and Graphics Rather than Words Alone 57

Do Visuals Make a Difference? 59

Multimedia Principle: Include Both Words and Graphics 60

Some Ways to Use Graphics to Promote Learning 63

Psychological Reasons for the Multimedia Principle 66

Evidence for Using Words and Pictures 67

When to Use Animations 72

How to Optimize Learning from Graphics 73

What We Don’t Know About Visuals 74

5 Applying the Contiguity Principle: Align Words to Corresponding Graphics 81

Spatial Contiguity Principle: Place Printed Words near Corresponding Graphics 83

Violations of Spatial Contiguity 85

Psychological Reasons for the Spatial Contiguity Principle 90

Evidence for the Spatial Contiguity Principle 90

Temporal Contiguity Principle: Synchronize Spoken Words with Corresponding Graphics 94

Psychological Reasons for the Temporal Contiguity Principle 96

Evidence for the Temporal Contiguity Principle 97

What We Don’t Know About Contiguity 98

6 Applying the Signaling Principle: Use Verbal and Visual Cues to Direct Attention 103

What Is Signaling? 104

How Does Signaling Work? 105

Evidence for the Benefits of Signaling 106

Signaling: The Bottom Line 110

What We Don’t Know About Signaling 110

7 Applying the Modality Principle: Present Words as Audio Narration Rather Than On-Screen Text 115

Modality Principle: Present Words as Speech Rather Than On-Screen Text 117

Psychological Reasons for the Modality Principle 119

Evidence for Using Spoken Rather Than Printed Text 121

When Audio Is Not Effective: Boundary Conditions for the Modality Principle 123

What We Don’t Know About Modality 127

8 When to Add Text to Audio Narration: Applying the Redundancy Principle 131

What Is the Redundancy Principle? 133

Psychological Reasons for the Redundancy Principle 133

Evidence for Omitting Redundant On-Screen Text 137

Add On-Screen Text to Narration in Special Situations 138

The Bottom Line 142

What We Don’t Know About Redundancy 142

9 Applying the Coherence Principle: Adding Extra Material Can Hurt Learning 149

Principle 1: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Words 152

Principle 2: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Graphics 156

Principle 3: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Audio 165

What We Don’t Know About Coherence 166

Part III How to Promote Skill Building in e-Learning 171

10 Engagement in e-Learning: Activities for Promoting Generative Learning 173

What Is Engagement? 175

Engagement and Generative Processing 176

Behavioral Versus Psychological Engagement 177

When Behavioral Engagement Impedes Learning 178

Three Engagement Activities That Can Promote Generative Processing 180

The Bottom Line to Engagement in e-Learning 185

What We Don’t Know About Generative Learning 186

11 Leveraging Examples in e-Learning 191

What Is Example-Based Instruction? 192

The Psychology of Example-Based Instruction 195

Evidence for the Benefits of Example-Based Instruction 196

How to Optimize the Benefits of Example-Based Instruction 197

What We Don’t Know About Worked Examples 208

12 Does Practice Make Perfect? 213

What Is Practice in e-Learning? 215

Is Practice a Good Investment? 217

Principle 1: Add Sufficient Practice Interactions to Achieve the Objective 219

Principle 2: Make Sure Practice Mirrors the Job 221

Principle 3: Provide Effective Feedback on Practice Performance 221

Principle 4: Distribute and Mix Practice Among Learning Events 227

Principle 5: Arrange Practice That Increases in Challenge as Learners Progress 229

Principle 6: Provide Scaffolding to Support Guided Practice When Needed 229

Principle 7: Apply Multimedia Principles in Designing Feedback 231

What We Don’t Know About Practice 232

Part IV How to Organize Content in e-Learning 235

13 Organizing Instruction: Applying the Segmenting and Pretraining Principles 237

What Is the Segmenting Principle? 239

What Is the Pretraining Principle? 244

Psychological Reasons for the Pretraining Principle 248

Managing Essential Overload 249

What We Don’t Know About Segmenting and Pretraining 250

14 Who’s in Control?: Guidelines for e-Learning Navigation 255

Learner Control Versus Program Control 257

Do Learners Make Good Instructional Decisions? 260

The Psychology of Learner Decisions 263

Four Principles for Learner Control in e-Learning 264

The Bottom Line 271

What We Don’t Know About Learner Control 271

Part V How to Leverage Social Cues in e-Learning 275

15 Applying the Personalization Principle: Use Conversational Style, Polite Wording, Friendly Voice, On-Screen Agents, and Social Presence in e-Learning 277

Personalization Principle 1: Use Conversational Rather Than Formal Style 280

Personalization Principle 2: Use Polite Wording 285

Personalization Principle 3: Use a Friendly Human Voice Quality for Narrations 286

Can On-Screen Agents Promote Learning in Asynchronous e-Learning? 287

How Can Instructors in Video Lessons Leverage Personalization? 293

What We Don’t Know About Personalization 295

16 Online Collaborative Learning 299

What Is Collaborative Learning? 301

The Psychology of Collaborative Learning 303

What Is Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL)? 304

Principle 1: Design Tasks and Team Assignments to Foster Interdependence 307

Principle 2: Optimize Group Size, Prior Knowledge, and Collaboration Experience 309

Principle 3: Consider Tradeoffs Between Synchronous and Asynchronous Collaboration 310

Principle 4: Maximize Social Presence in Online Collaborative Environments 312

Principle 5: Use Scripts to Optimize Team Outcomes 313

What We Don’t Know About Online Collaborative Learning 316

Part VI Special Applications of e-Learning 319

17 e-Learning to Build Thinking Skills 321

What Are Thinking Skills? 323

What to Teach: Focused Target Skills Versus Improving the Mind in General 325

Where to Teach: Domain-General Versus Domain-Specific Thinking Skills 325

How to Teach: Expert Modeling with Learner Practice Versus Direct Instruction 326

Can Thinking Skills Be Trained? 326

Principle 1: Build Explicit Instruction to Teach Specific Job-Relevant Thinking Skills 328

Principle 2: Incorporate Online Simulations of Authentic Work Scenarios 332

Principle 3: Identify Job-Specific Thinking Processes 335

Teaching Thinking Skills: The Bottom Line 336

What We Don’t Know About Teaching Thinking Skills 336

18 Designing Effective Instructional Video 341

The Challenge of Instructional Video 343

Historical Foundations of Instructional Video 343

Uses of Instructional Video 343

Principle 1: Record a Demonstration Video from a First-Person Perspective 345

Principle 2: Have the Instructor Draw on the Board While Lecturing 346

Principle 3: Embed Generative Activities During Breaks in the Video 347

Principle 4: Add Subtitles for Learning in a Second Language 348

Principle 5: Have the Instructor Exhibit Positive Voice and Gestures 349

Principle 6: Have the Instructor Use Pointing and Eye Gaze to Direct Attention 350

Principle 7: Avoid Overuse of Talking Heads or Static Instructor Images 351

Principle 8: Apply Multimedia Design Principles 352

What We Don’t Know About Instructional Video 353

19 Learning with Computer Games 357

Do Games Have a Place in the Serious Business of Training? 359

Which Features Improve a Game’s Effectiveness? 359

What Are the Cognitive Consequences of Playing Off-the-Shelf Computer Games? 365

Are Games More Effective Than Conventional Media? 368

What We Don’t Know About Learning with Computer Games 375

20 Immersive Virtual Reality for Instruction 379

The Promise and Pitfalls of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality 381

What Is Immersive Virtual Reality? 382

Three Levels of Immersion 383

Is Immersive Virtual Reality Better for Learning Than Traditional Media? 383

When to Use Immersive Virtual Reality Learning Environments 386

How to Use Immersive Virtual Reality Training Environments 386

What We Don’t Know About Immersive Virtual Reality 389

21 Applying the Multimedia Guidelines 395

How Strong Is the Evidence for the Multimedia Principles? 395

e-Learning Guidelines Checklists 400

Trends in Multimedia Instructional Design Research 404

The Future of Multimedia Instructional Design Research 405

Conclusion 407

Glossary 409

References 429

Acknowledgments 459

About the Authors 461

Author Index 463

Subject Index 473