The Psychology of Sex and Gender

Preface

Introduction

Acknowledgments

Dedication

 

I. AN INTRODUCTION TO SEX AND GENDER

1. Why a Psychology of Sex and Gender?

Why a Psychology of Sex and Gender?

The Terminology of Sex and Gender

Introduction to the Psychology of Sex and Gender

            Traditional Psychology and the Experience of Women

            A Misrepresentation of Men?

Development of Women=s Studies and Men=s Studies

            Women's Studies from a Psychological Perspective

            Men's Studies from a Psychological Perspective

            Personal Perspectives: Societal Expectations, the Family, and the Individual

            Why Sex and Gender Studies?

            Goals of Gender Studies

                        Academic goals

                        Social goals

                        Personal goals

Chapter Summary

Resources

            Suggested Readings

            Suggested Films

            Other Resources

            Research Project: Societal Expectations, the Family, and the Individual

            Journaling

            Self-Evaluation Sample Form

            Discussion Questions

A Common Vocabulary

Notes and Comments

2. Methodological Considerations When Studying Sex and Gender

The Scientific Analysis of Sex and Gender

The Scientific Method

Approaches Commonly Used to Study of Sex and Gender

            Experimental Approach

            Naturalistic Observation

            Case Study Approach

            Survey and Interview Approach

            Meta-analysis Approach

Considerations When Selecting A Research Design

            Longitudinal Design

            Cross-sectional Design

            Cross-sequential Design

            Data Analysis

Sex and Gender as Subject and Response Variables

            Sex as a Subject Variable

            Gender as a Subject Variable

            Sex and Gender as Response Variables

Issues Related to a Global Research Approach

            Issues Related to Social Analyses

            Sex, Gender, and Culture: Issues with Generalizability

                        Personal Perspectives:  A Lack of Multiculturalism in Education

            Advantages of Incorporating a Global Perspective into our Research Programs

            Avoiding Problems of Bias in Research: Diversity as a Continuing Issue

            How Does Generalizability Relate to the Text?

Chapter Summary

Resources

            Suggested Readings

            Suggested Films

            Research Project: Practical Issues Related to Research

            Discussion Questions

A Common Vocabulary

Notes and Comments

3. Stereotypes, Mythology, Media Messages

Stereotyping As a Cognitive Strategy

Are Men and Women Fundamentally Different From Each Other?

            Stereotyping as a Cognitive Strategy

            Common Beliefs

            Investigatory Project: Stereotypes

An Historical Overview of Stereotypes: Major Mythological Themes  

            Male as Powerful

            Male as Normative

            Female as Evil

            Female as Giver of Life

            Female as Sexual Being

            Investigatory Project: Underlying Themes of Gender Stereotypes

How the Study of Myths Relates to Gender Studies

            Manifestation of Mythological Themes Related to Females

            Manifestation of Mythological Themes Related to Males

Modern-Day Myths as Reflected by the Media

            Representations of Boys and Men

            Representations of Girls and Women

            A Market-Based Explanation for Gender Stereotyping in the Media

            Potential for the Internalization of Dominant Beliefs

            Personal Perspectives: Do Stereotypes Influence Behavior?

            Why Does Stereotyping in the Media Continue To Be So Pervasive?

Chapter Summary

Resources

            Suggested Readings

            Suggested Films

            Other Resources

            Investigatory Project: Self-fulfilling Prophecies

            Discussion Questions

A Common Vocabulary

Notes and Comments

II. THEORETICAL EXPLANATIONS FOR THE ACQUISITION OF A GENDER IDENTITY

4. Theoretial Explanations for Gender Identity:  Biological through Neo-Freudian Perpsectives

What is a Theory?

            Hallmarks of a Good Theory

            Development of a Theory

The Biological Perspective

            The Processes of Sex Determination and Sex Differentiation

            Sex-Linked Traits and Disorders

            Evidence for the Contribution of Genetic Material to Sex Determination and Sex Differentiation

            Evidence for Hormonal Mediation of Sex Differentiation

            The Role of Hormones on Cognitive Tasks

            Research Report: Sex Differentiation of Cognitive Abilities

            Evidence from Animal Models of the Biological Basis for Aggressive Behavior

            A Sociobiological Perspective

            A Critical Analysis of Biological Theory

Freudian Psychoanalytic Perspective

            A Profile:  Sigmund Freud

            Freud's Concept of the Psyche

            Freud and the Male Oedipal Complex

            Freud and the Female as a Castrated Male

            The Social Identification Process and Development of the Superego

            Fixation at the Phallic Stage of Psychosexual Development

            A Critical Analysis of Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory

NeoFreudian Contributions to the Psychoanalytic Perspective

            A Psychology of Women: Helene Deutsch

            Psychosocial Theory: Erik Erikson

            Object Relations Theory: Margaret Mahler and Nancy Chodorow

            Commonalities of Psychoanalytic and Object Relations Theories

            A Critical Analysis of NeoFreudian Psychoanalytic Theory and Object Relations Theory

Chapter Summary

Resources for

            Suggested Readings

            Suggested Films

            Other Resources

            Discussion Questions

A Common Vocabulary

Notes and Comment

5. Theoretical Explanations for Gender Identity: Cognitive through Environmental Perspectives

Cognitive Perspectives

            Cognitive Developmental Theory: Lawrence Kohlberg

                        Cognitive development: Jean Piaget

                        Piaget's stages

            Assumptions of Cognitive Developmentalists

            Gender Schema Theory: Sandra Bem

            A Critical Analysis of Kohlberg’s Developmental Theory and Bem’s Gender Schema Theory

Moral Reasoning: Are There Developmental Patterns Related to Gender?

            Investigatory Report: Moral Reasoning

            Gender Differences in the Development of Moral Reasoning According to Lawrence Kohlberg

                        Biographical Sketch: Lawrence Kohlberg

            Socialization and Moral Reasoning According to Carol Gilligan

                        Biographical Sketch: Carol Gilligan

Environmental Perspectives

            Operant Conditioning Theory: B. F. Skinner

            Social Learning Theory: John Dollard, Neal Miller, Walter Mischel, and Albert Bandura

            Research Report: Gender Differences in Modeling

            Broader Social Influences          

            Investigatory Project: Social Influences and Symbolism

            A Critical Analysis of Learning Theories

Theory and the Acquisition of Gender Identityand Sex Typing

Chapter Summary

Resources

            Suggested Readings

            Suggested Films

            Other Resources

            Investigatory Project: Morality and the Law 

            Discussion Questions

A Common Vocabulary

Notes and Comments         

III. A DEVELOPMENTAL OVERVIEW OF SEX AND GENDER

6. A Developmental Overview: Prenatal Development through Childhood

An Overview of Development

            Key Developmental Principles Relevant to the Study of Sex and Gender

Prenatal Development

            Developmental beginnings: Chromosomal Sex

            Developmental beginnings: Gonadal Sex

            Developmental Beginnings: Hormonal Sex

Child Development in the Physical Domain

            Neural Development

            Physical Growth

            Motor Development

            Activity Patterns

Child Development in the Cognitive Domain

            Sensation and Perception

                        Tactile sensitivity

                        Taste

                        Olfaction

                        Vision

                        Audition

            Early Social Perceptions

            Language Development

Child Development in the Socioemotional Domain

            Social Attachments

                        Biographical Sketch: Mary D. Salter Ainsworth

            Modern Family Structure

            Sex, Gender, and Play

                        Experiment 1: Peer Preference

Chapter Summary

Resources

            Suggested Readings

            Suggested Films

            Other Resources

            Classroom Activity

                        Doll and Parrots: Nurturing as a "Girl Thing"

                        Mom, where=s the coffee and bread?

            Discussion Questions

A Common Vocabulary

Notes and comments

7. Topics in Childhood

Attachment

            Developmental Outcomes Related to the Nature of Attachment Style

            Student Assignment Excerpt:  Bullies and Victims

            Self-esteem and Identity Development

            The Nature and Causes of Child Abuse

            Investigatory Project:  Child Abuse Worldwide and Intervention

            The Consequences of Child Abuse

Play

            Play, Gender, and Social Relationships

            Investigative Project: Learning From Schoolchildren

            Experiment 1: Gender Labels and Play Styles

            A Biological Perspective of Play

            Experiment 2: Play and Peer Sex Discrimination (Bower, 1989)

            Psychoanalytic and Object Relations Perspectives of Play

            A Cognitive Developmental Explanation for Play

            Gender Schema Theory and Play

            Social Learning Theory, Operant Theory and Play

Early Education

            Educational Opportunities from a Systems Perspective

            Developmental Disabilities

                        Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity (ADHD) and Schooling           

                        Personal Perspectives:  ADHD and Development

            Creativity and Gender

                        Creative Writing

                        Childrens’ Artwork

                        Investigatory Project: Art and Gender

Chapter Summary

Resources

            Suggested Readings

            Suggested Films

            Other Resources

            Discussion Questions

A Common Vocabulary

Notes and Comments

8. A Developmental Overview: Adolescence and Young Adulthood

History of Adolescent Psychology 

            Adolescence: Stage or Transition?

            Biographical Sketches: Granville Stanley Hall and Erik Homberger Erikson

Adolescent Physical Development

            Development of Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics

            Female Maturation

                        Psychological experience of adolescent girls

            Male Maturation

                        Psychological experience of adolescent boys

            Individual Differences in Physical Development

                        Personal Perspectives: Rate of Maturation

Adolescent Cognitive Development

            A Piagetian View of Adolescent Cognitive Development

            Education

                        School adjustment

                        Academic attitudes and choices

                        Journal Excerpt: A Young Woman’s Experience with Math

                        Academic performance and self-esteem

Adolescent Socioemotional Development

            Family Relationships

            Peer Relationships

                        School as a social setting:  An intervention

                                    Investigatory Project: The Influence of Educational Settings on Gender Stereotypes

                        Development of intimate relationships

                        Identity and sexual orientation

                                    Personal Perspective:  Coming Out

                                    Personal Perspective:  Bisexual Orientation

                                    Personal Perspectives:  Negative Outcomes Related to Sexual Orientation

                        Function of Dating

                                    Personal Perspectives: Cross-Cultural Issues and Dating

                                    Personal Perspective: Homosexual Teens and Dating

Chapter Summary

Resources

            Suggested Readings

            Suggested Films

            Discussion Questions

A Common Vocabulary

Notes and Comments

9. Topics in Adolescence and Young Adulthood

Adolescents, Young Adults, and Sexuality

            Personal Perspective: Sexual Activity and Education

            Developing Sexual Attitudes

            Gender and Sexual Attitudes

            Religion, Sexual Attitudes, and Behavior

            Sexual Behavior: Autoerotic Activities     

                        Personal Perspectives: Autoerotic Activities

            Sexual Behavior: Intercourse

            Cultural Diversity and Sexual Behavior

Potential Consequences of Early Sexual Activity 

            Sexually Transmitted Diseases  

            Contraceptive Use

            Early Parenthood

            Family and Cultural Values

Sex Education

            Sex Education Programs in the Schools

            Book excerpt:  Developing Refusal Skills

            Other Sources of Sex Education

Physical and Psychological Health

            Externalization of Conflict: Juvenile Delinquency

                        Conflict, aggression, and gender

                        Student Paper Excerpt:  Bullying

                        Investigatory Project: Troubled Teens

                        Relational conflict

            Internalization of Conflict: Suicide and Eating Disorders

                        Suicide

                        Investigatory Report: Suicide and Young Adolescents 

                        Eating disorders and body image

                        Personal Perspectives: Eating Disorders, Self-image, and Body Image

Chapter Summary      

Resources

            Suggested Readings

            Suggested Films

            Other Resources

            Research Project: A Social Function for Religion

            Discussion Questions

            Investigatory Project: Eating Disorders

A Common Vocabulary

Notes and Comments

10. A Developmental Overview: Adulthood

Adult Development in the Physical Domain

            General Physical Decline

            Age-Related Weight Changes

            Structural Changes

The Sexual-Reproductive System

            Hormonal Cycling in Females

                        Cognitive correlates of the menstrual cycle

                        Premenstrual syndrome/premenstrual dysphoric disorder

                                    Definitional issues

                                    Methodological issues

                                    Interventions

            Hormonal Fluctuations in Males

            Middle Age and Reproductive Changes   

                        Menopause

                        Is there male menopause?

                        Aging and the prostate gland

                        Breast and ovarian cancer

            Sexuality and the Later Adult Years

            Sexual activity and the elderly

            Sexual orientation

Adult Development in the Cognitive Domain

            Adult Sensation and Perception

                        Olfaction

                        Taste

                        Audition

                        Vision

                        Touch

            Visuospatial and Verbal Abilities 

                        Spatial skills and visuospatial abilities

                        Verbal abilities

            Lateralization of Cognitive Function

            Patterns of Cognitive Change

Adult Development in the Social Domain

            Homosexuality

            Falling in Love

            What do Adults Look For in a Relationship?

            Characteristics of Single Adults

            Characteristics of Divorced and Widowed Singles

            Characteristics of Cohabiting and Married Couples

            Decision-Making and Influence Strategies in Relationships

            Reactions to Relationship Dissolution

                        Personal Perspective:  The End of a Marriage

Chapter Summary

Resources for Students and Instructors

            Suggested Readings

            Suggested Films

            Other Resources

            Discussion Questions

A Common Vocabulary

Notes and Comments

11. Current Topics in Adulthood

Health

            Reproductive Complications

                        Infertility

                        Sexual dysfunction

                        Sexually transmitted diseases and the elderly

            Psychiatric Problems

                        Borderline and narcissistic personality disorders

                        Depression

                        Excerpt from student paper:  Suicide and the Elderly

                        Anorexia nervosa and the elderly

            Healthcare Policy and Gender

Communication

            Verbal Communication: Production and Comprehension

            Communication Strategies in Relationships

                        Verbal

                        Nonverbal

Relationships

            Intimate Relationships

                        Personal factors

                        Relational factors

                        Cultural factors

                        An eclectic explanation

            Personal Perspectives: Gender Role Specialization

            Parenting: Stability or Change in Gender Roles?

                        Biological basis for parenting

                        An object relations perspective

                        Point and counterpoint

Occupation

            Division of Labor in the Home

            Labor Outside of the Home

Chapter Summary

Resources

            Suggested Readings

            Suggested Films

            Other Resources

            Investigatory Projects

            Discussion Questions

A Common Vocabulary

Notes and Comments

Glossary

References

Author Index

Subject Index